MAURY S 

NEW COMPLETE 

GEOGRAPHY 

REVISED EDITION 

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THE MAURY GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES 


NEW COMPLETE 


GEOGRAPHY 


Mf Fl MAURY, LL. D. 

Author of Physical Geography of the Sea," and late Superintendent of the National Observatory, Washington, D. C. 


REVISED EDITION 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA 














4 


CONTEiiTS. 


text or offered suggestions which we gratefully accepted. For foreign 
countries we obtained by direct correspondence with our consuls, from 
their official reports, the industrial and commercial details which go into 
the text. The statistics are taken from the latest department reports from 
Washington and from the latest foreign authorities. 

Illustrations.—The illustrations are all from photographs, and a 
large part of these we have collected during the past two years in all 
parts of the world. We are indebted for several of our pictures to Messrs. 
Underwood and Underwood, whose copyrighted stereographic photo¬ 
graphs we cordially recommend for purposes of geographical illustra¬ 
tions. We are also indebted for a few illustrations to Mr. H. C. White 
and to the Detroit Photographic Company, who own the copyrights. 

To teachers and superintendents, both North and South, we are 
indebted for valuable assistance and suggestions, which came from 
their actual experience in the practical work of teaching geography to 
boys and girls. 

We offer this as a new book, arranged on the plan as already outlined 
to meet the consensus of opinion of earnest, thoughtful educators who are 
teaching the subject of geography, or superintending educational systems. 
Wherever the text of Maury’s Manual has been complete and sufficient 


it has been retained. We were glad to be able to do this because it is so 
clear, simple, and attractive that it has won for the book the uniform favor 
of the teachers using it. The original text makes up so large a part of the 
book that it is still essentially Maury’s work. Maury’s Geographies never 
belonged to the old school, but rather to the new. Being devoted to the 
study of physical geography, and father of the science of the “Physical 
Geography of the Sea,” he undertook the preparation of his book originally 
with the intention and purpose, “ to redeem the most delightful of subjects 
from the bondage of dry .statistics on one hand, and on the other, from the 
drudgery of vague, general ideas.” In his original preface he adds: “In 
the preparation of this volume and that of its predecessors, no pains have 
been spared to lead the young geographer by easy and gentle gradations 
to vantage-ground from which he may overlook and survey nature for 
himself. ‘The study of physical geography,’ to borrow the words of 
Humboldt, ‘finds its noblest and richest reward in a knowledge of the 
chain of connection by which all natural forces are linked together and 
made mutually dependent upon each other; and it is the perception of 
these relations that exalts our view and ennobles our enjoyment.’” It 
will therefore be seen that the development of modern methods of teaching 
this subject have only brought it nearer to Maury’s ideal. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction. 5 

Mathematical Geography. 9 

Physical Geography. 15 

Political Geography. 21 

The Hemispheres. 24 

North America. 26 

United States. 30 

New England States. 40 

Middle Atlantic States. 44 

Southern States .. 50 

Central States..’. 61 


Rocky Mountain Region. 74 

The Plateau Region. 77 

The Coast Region. 78 

The Island Regions. 81 

Transportation and Travel in the 

United States. 84 

Dominion op Canada. 88 

Newfoundland and Danish America. 91 

Mexico. 93 

Central America. 96 

West Indies. 96 


South America ... 98 

Europe. 110 

Asia. 134 

Africa. 150 

Australia. 161 

OCEANIC.A . 163 

General Review. 165 

Trade and Navigation. 166 

Geographical and Statistical Tables. ... 168 

Index.•. 172 

Recent Events. 176 









































G BIOGRAPHY 



INTRODUCTION. 

1. The Earth is one of the Heavenly Bodies. —As we look 

into the sky on a clear night and behold the multitude of stars 
glittering in the far-away depth of space, it is hard to find any 
resemblance between them and the dark, solid earth on which we 
stand. It is hard to believe that the earth is a huge sphere rush¬ 
ing along in its curved path about the sun at a rate of speed 
swifter than that of a cannon ball, and at the same time rotating 
on its axis, apparently turning everything upside down every 
twenty-four hours. 

And yet if we could stand upon the moon and view the earth, 
it would appear much as the moon now appears to us, only about 
four times as large; and if we could see it from a much greater 
distance, its appearance would be precisely like that of some of 
tne stars. 

2. The Fixed Stars. —If we should watch the stars carefully 
from night to night, we would observe what men observed thou- 

The lessons as far as page 24, should be read and discussed with books open by class and teach 

the book, and after it has been completed they 


sands of years ago—that some of them always keep in the same 
positions, while others are constantly moving onward along 
certain paths. The stars of the first kind are called fixed stars; 
to those of the second kind the name planets, or wanderers, 
has been given. 

The fixed stars are fiery suns like our own, but they are so far 
away that we can see only the light that comes from them. They 
are more than can be numbered, for though we can see only a 
few thousand with the eye alone, with the aid of a powerful tele¬ 
scope millions more are brought into view, which are at such 
enormous distances from the earth that not the faintest ray of 
their light is visible to the naked eye. 

These stars appear to be aiTan>fed in groups, or constellations, 
which the ancient astronomers explained by saying that the gods had 
placed in the sky certain persons and animals as a reward for some 
merit that they possessed. Thus the “ Great Bear,” or “ Dipper,” 

• was Callisto, a beautiful princess of Arcadia, whom the jealous Juno 
turned into a bear, and who was placed in the sky by Jupiter. The 
“ Dittle Bear,” which contains the Pole Star, was her son, 

r. Frequent reference should be made to these lessons during the progress of the class through 
lay be assigned as regular lessons for recitation. 




6 


THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 


Areas. Near the 
two bears are 
Cassiopeia, 

C e p h e u s , 
and the Dra¬ 
gon, about 
each of whom 
a story is told 
by the Greek 
writers. Tliere 
is a great belt 
in the sky com¬ 
posed of twelve 
constellations 
entirely sur¬ 
rounding the 
earth. This 
belt is called 
the zodiac. 

Within it is 
the patli along 
which the sun 
appears to 
travel in his 
yearly course. 

You may find 
the names of 
these constella¬ 
tions in an al- o^oup of familiar consteUationa. Sirius is the brightMt of the fired 
stars. Notice that the three stars forming the belt of Orion point to it. 
manac where The Hyades form a V and the Pleiades are in a cluster just above it. 

they are called the twelve signs of the zodiac. 

3. Planets and Moons. —The planets are our nearest neigh¬ 
bors among the heavenly bodies, and are the only ones, except 
our sun and moon, about which anything of importance is known, j 
They shine with a stead}’' light and revolve about the sun like our I 
earth, but at different distances. The time required by a planet 
to make one revolution about the sun is called its year. The 
planets near the sun have shorter years than those farther away, 
because they move more swiftly and have less distance to go. 

Nearest the sun is Mercury, named for the messenger of the gods be¬ 
cause of bis swiftness. Next is Venus, the brightest of the planets, 
named after the goddess of beauty. Beyond the earth is Mai's, which 
received the name of the war-god on account of its red color. Next 
' is .Jupiter, the largest planet, and hence named after the king of the 
gods. Most distant from the sun are Saturn, Uraiiu.s, and Neptune. 
Between Mars and Jupiter are several hundred smaller planets called 
planetoids. These cannot be seen without a telescope. 

All the planets, except ^Mercury and Yenus, have bodies revolv¬ 
ing about them which we call satellites, or moons; these help 
to light up the planets at night. The earth has but one moon, but 
Mars has two moons, Jupiter eight, and Saturn ten. It is probable 
that many moons are yet undiscovered. 

Phases of the Moon.—Notice the position of the new moon soon 
after sunset. Observe it tor several nights at the same hour, and you 
will see that each night it is farther east and shows nioi’e and more 
of its illuminated side. At tlie end of two weeks it has moved 
entirely across the sky and appears in the east at sunset as the full 
moon. For the next two weeks it is seen later and later each night 
—showing less and less of its illuminated side—a half moon at the end 
of the third week as at the end of the first week. At the end of fpur 
weeks you may see it again in the west a thin crescent; it has revolved 
entirely about the earth. The time of its revolution is called a month. 
These changes in the appearance of the moon are called phases. By 
means of a telescope we may watch the revolution of other moons 
about their planets. The moons of Jupiter are the most easily seen. 


Just as we may observ’e the moons revolving about their planets, so we 
may observe the planets revolving about the sun, only our observa¬ 
tion must be far more careful and exact. 

4. Comets and Meteors. —Besides the planets, moon, and 
fixed stars, there are strange fiery bodies that appear suddenly 
in the sky and vanish as quickly as they come. In the year 
1882 a bright star appeared in the northeastern sky. As it 
moved along toward the sun, afan-sha])ed light spread out behind 
it known as the tail. It circled about the sun and then sped 
away into the depths of space. Such bodies are called comets. 
As in the case of the fixed stars many comets have been seen 
with the telescope that are invisible to the naked eye. 

Sometimes red-hot masses of iron or stone fall upon the earth. 
These are called meteorites. About 275 of them have fallen during 
the last century. We do not know where they come from, but some 
think that they are little planets which the earth meets in its journey 
around the sun. During clear nights trails of light that suddenly 
appear and vanisli are seen in the sky. These are called shooting 
stars. They are doubtless small meteors that pass through the 
atmosphere of the earth, but do not reach its surface. 

5. The Solar System. —The sun and the planets tvith their 
moons are together called the “ Solar System.” The sun is the 
center about which all other members of the system revolve. It 
is a red-hot mass of matter surrounded with burning vapor. 
The diameter of the sun is over 100 times that of the earth. 
This means that it would take 1,300,000 bodies the size of the 
earth to make up the sun. If the earth were as large as the sun, 
its surface would extend nearly 200,000 miles beyond the moon. 
An ocean steamer can sail around the earth in about fifty days ; 

but if the earth were as 
large as the sun, the voy¬ 
age would take fifteen 
years. 

From the sun all the 
planets and moons re¬ 
ceive light and heat. 
Without this light and 
heat all the water on the 
earth would become ice. 
The earth would be 
wrapped in perpetual 
midnight, and every liv¬ 
ing thing, both plant and 
animal, would perish. 

Origin of the Solar 
Sy.stein.—It is thought by 
some astronomers that the 
sun, the planets, and moons 
all once formed a single mass of glowing vapor, which filled all the 
space between the sun and the most distant planet. This mass rotated 
on its axis ju.st as the earth does now. As the mass cooled, the 
motion of rotation caused it to bulge out at the equator, and a num¬ 
ber of rings of vaporous matter were thrown off, which afterward 
took on a spherical form and continued to revolve about the central 
mass as planets. The planets also threw off rings which became moons. 
The planet, Saturn, still has two rings revolving about it, which may 
be seen with the telescope. Another theory is that these rings are com- 


Stars of First Magnitudo—i^ Stars of Second Magnitude - ¥ 

Pleiades A * * 




* TAURUS 

V-’'***’* 




\ ORION 


\ 


_ ■N'. 

/♦ - * \ 

? ERIDANUS f 


■' Rige! 


V 


Oog Star 

t. 


f- ^-k 

i 'f'*' 

! ; THE HARE 

* J 



The phases of the moon. The sun is supposed to be above 
the n.cture in line with the earth and moon. The moon 
revolves about the earth in the direction shown by the arrou\ 
Notice that when the moon is on the side of the earth oppo- 
site to the sun, we see the half of its surface that is lighted 
up; but when it is between the earth and the sun, only a 
small crescent^shaped part of the ilium nated side can be 
seen; between these two positions half of its illuminated side, 
or a quarter of its entire surface, is visible. 


















SURFACE OF THE EARTH, DIVISIONS, AND DEFINITIONS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


7 


posed of vast numbers of small 
individual bodies, so small that 
they cannot be separately seen. 

The Surface of the Earth.— 

When the earth was first formed 
into a sphere it was intensely hot, 
and the waters which now form 
oceans and rivers floated above 
it in the form of v’apor. But as 
the surface cooled, the vapor 
conden.sed into water and fell 
to the earth, only to be driven 
back again bj^ the still heated 
rocks. At last the waters re¬ 
mained permanently upon the 
earth, covering the entire surface. 

When rocks cool from a melted 
condition they become much 
smaller. Accordingly, as the 
interior of the earth continued to 
cool it became smaller than the 
outer crust. This caused the 
crust to rise up in fold-s or 
wriiikle.s in the same way that 
a loose garment or a carpet too 
large for a floor will form in 
wrinkles or folds. The eleva¬ 
tions thus formed were the be¬ 
ginning of the continents and „ „. „ w*. . 

^ ^ . , , . The Soiar System, The planets revolve about the sun in the same direction as the moon revolves 

the waters of tiie earth, g'athering* about the earth, and all of their orbits or paths are nearly in the same plane. In this diagram fhnf 

in planets is too great in proportion to that of the sun and the size of the moons too tllclt 

111 Liie aepressiOUS, lorilieu Llie in proportion to that of the planets about which they revolve. The relative distances of the 

oceans planets from the sun are also only approximately shown. 

As soon as the land rose the waters began to take part in shaping its 
.surface. The clouds laden with vapor were driven against the 
mountains, and condensed into rain; the rains begaji to form spring.s, 
and brooks, and rivers, which wore away the rocks and washed the 
loose material down to the lower levels where it was spread out as 
soil. In this way the plains and valleys were made. The waters of 
the sea, dashing against the shores, helped to grind up the rocks, and 
the frost and the atmosphere also took 
part in the forming of land. 

Soon plants began to grow in the new 
soil. Their leaves and stalks decaying 
made the soil richer and deeper. After 
that auiinals appeared. First the 
simplest forms, such as shell fish, cor¬ 
als. and sponges; then fishes, reptiles, 
the higher animals, and at last man. 

The surface of the earth is undergoing 
constant change. The streams carve 
out valleys among the hills and moun¬ 
tains. and the worn-out earth material 
is carried away to build up plains 
along their lower courses, and to All 
up the shallow parts of the ocean. 

Along the coast, capes, headlands, 
isthmuses, and islands are formed by 




A baked apple after cooling. The 
shrinking of the apple causes the skin 
to wrinkle. The height of the wrinkles 

the combined action of the rivers, 

waves, and the rising and .sinking of 

the coast and ocean beds. In these The cause in each case ts the same; 

. . 1 that is, coating from a heated state. 

various ways the forces of nature have 

gradually shaped the forms of land and water which we call 

natural divisions. 

6. Divisions of Geography. —The study of the heavenly 
bodies is called “ astronomy.” So that part of geography that 
treats of the earth as one of the heavenly bodies is called “ astro¬ 
nomical geography.” Because this division treats of the shape 
and size of the earth and of measurements upon its surface, it is 


also called Mathematical Geog¬ 
raphy. 

A second division is Phys¬ 
ical Geography. This treats 
of the natural divisions of the 
earth, such as oceans, continents, 
islands, mountains, jilains, and 
valleys, of the heat and mois¬ 
ture of the atmosphere, and of 
])lants and animals. These two 
division's of geography treat of 
the earth in its natural condition. 

But the earth is the home 
of man, and man has divided 
it into countries, provinces, and 
cities. These are inhabited by 
different races and nations, each 
of which has its own customs, 
religion, and form of goveimment. 
The branch of geography that 
treats of these things is called 
Political Geography. 

One of the most important 
learn in geog¬ 
raphy is ho\v the earth is made 
to })rovide for the needs of mankind. Men engage in various 
occupations by which they produce the things that satisfy 
such needs. But since the same articles cannot be produced in 
all countries, the nations of the earth engage in trade to secure, 
the things that they cannot obtain at home. That part of our 
subject that treats of the jiroduction of articles and the trade in 
them among the nations of the world is called Commercial 
Geography. 


I. GEXERAE DEFINITIONS. 

1. Geography is a description of the surface of the earth, and 
its inhabitants. It is divided into Mathematical, Physical, Polit¬ 
ical, and Commercial Geography. 

2. Mathematical Geography treats of the shape, size, and 
motions of the earth, the determination of positions and distances 
on its surface, and of its re])resentation by globes and maps. 

3. Physical Geography treats of the natural divisions of the 
surface of the earth, of climate, and the distribution of plants 
and animals. 

4. Political Geography treats of the inhabitants of the 
earth, their customs and religions, their industrial pursuits, and 
their forms of government. 

5. Commercial Geography treats of the commodities that 
are bought and sold by the nations of the earth, their produc¬ 
tion, transportation, and the trade in them. 

Review Topics. —Fixed stars. Planets. Constellations. The zodiac. 
Moons. Comets. Meteors. Meteorites. The solar system. Origin of. The sur¬ 
face of the earth. How natural divisions were formed. Effects of moving water. 
Plants. Animals. Geography. Its divisions. Mathematical Geography. Phys¬ 
ical Geography. Political Geography. Commercial Geography. 


; 





















8 


SHAPE, SIZE, AND MOTIONS OF THE EAETH. 


IV/f" A A/F A A T T? A T^TTA^ opposite side of the earth are not really ‘upside down,” 

X JtL Jlii-TX-A. X X\^uA.Xj ^jrXli vX^JTX\i-A.X XX X • because down is toward the earth’s center and up is toward the sky. 

Hence everything on the earth is naturally “ right side up.” 


II. SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE EARTH. 


1. The Shape of the earth is nearly that of a sphere or round 
ball. It does not appear round to us, because we see so small a 
part of it at a time. 


Early Theories.—In ancient times it was the general opinion that 
the earth was flat and circular, because it appeared so when seen 
from an elevation. Ancient nations thought, and savage tribes still 
think, that the country of each occupies the center of the earth, be¬ 
cause from any high point of observation the horizon is equally dis¬ 
tant on every side. 

The philosophers of ancient Greece were among the first to make ob¬ 
servations that led them to think that the earth was round. In the 


middle of the fourth century B. c., 

Aristotle said that travelers had noticed 
that when they went north or south a 
few hundred miles, new stars came into 
view before them on the horizon, while 
those behind them sank out of sight. 

This seemed to prove that they were 
traveling over a curved surface. Aris¬ 
totle noticed also that when the earth 
comes between the sun and the moon, 
it casts a circular shadow upon the 
moon. This, he said, proved that the 
earth is a sphere, since only a sphere will 

cast a circular shadow in all positions. eclipse. The outline of this 
_ . ... . A 1 i .1 .1 shadow IS always curved, showing 

Early Navigators thought the earth must that the complete shadow would be 

be round, because whenever they came in abouuhe shupe% thThrttf 
sight of land, they first saw the tops of trees or the summits of the 
mountains, while the land beneath lay concealed from view. They 
also observed in watching a ship departing from shore that it gradu¬ 
ally sinks below the horizon until the tips of’the masts finally disap¬ 
pear. 



Proofs.—These conjectures were proved to be true by the sailing of 
one of Magellan’s ships entirely around the world during 1519-1522. 

If a lever line be drawn along a flat coast or out to sea, in any direc¬ 
tion, the surface of the earth is found to curve away from it about 
eight inches in one mile, two feet and eight inches in two miles, etc. 
This proves conclusively that the earth is a sphere. 


20 IS 10 6 



A straigM line touching the surface of the water. Notice that tfle surface curves away 
from this line seventeen feet at a distance of five miles, sixty seven feet at a distance of 
ten miles, one hundred and forty-six feet at a distance of fifteen miles, etc. 


But, though the form of the earth is thus known to be spherical, its 
exact shape and size has to be determined by laborious calculation. 

Actual Measurement.— From measurements made in various 
parts of the world, it has been ascertained that the exact figure 
of the earth is that of an oblate spheroid. 

A Spheroid is a body like a sphere or globe. An oblate spheroid is a 
globe flattened at the poles, somewhat as an orange is at the stem, 
especially if it be slightly compressed between the finger and thumb. 

The cause of the flattening at the poles and the bulging out at the 
equator is the motion of rotation. If any plastic body as a ball 
of putty or a soft rubber ball be rotated rapidly on its axis, it 
will flatten at the poles. This is due to the same force that causes a 
stone to fly from a sling when whirled about the hand. It is some¬ 
times called centrifugal force. 

Since the earth is a sphere, or nearly so, some of us may wonder why it 
is that objects do not fall off the earth when it rotates. The reason for 
this is that the earth has a power of attraction, called gravitation, 
by which it draws all objects toward its center. People and things 


2. Size of the Earth. —The Circumference of the earth, or 
greatest distance round it, is nearly 25,000 miles. 

The Diameter of the earth, or distance through its center in a 
straight line, from any point on the surface to the point opposite, 
is nearly 8,000 miles. The polar diameter is 26| miles less than 
the equatorial diameter. 

The surface of the earth contains about 197,000,000 square 
miles. 

Review Topics.— Shape of the earth. Why does it seem flat? Give early 
theories about its shape. Proofs. What is the exact figure of the earth? Describe 
an oblate spheroid. Account for the flattening at the poles. What is gravitation? 
Explain the terms “ up” and “ down.” What is the circumference of the earth? 
Its diameter? What is the difference between the polar and equatorial diameters? 
Area of its surface? 

III. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

1. Daily Motion. —The sun is seen in the east every morning, 
and seems to cross the heavens and disappear in the west at sun¬ 
set. The stars, in the same way, appear to rise in the east and 
sink in the west. This is not because the sun and stars go round 
the earth. They do not; they appear to do so because of the 
daily rotation of the earth on its axis. 

Illustratious.—If an observer could watch our globe from the moon, 
and his eye first discern North and South America, these continents 
would in a few hours move out of sight; the Pacific Ocean would 
come into view instead; then the islands of Oceania, followed by 
Australia, Asia, Europe and Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, and, finally, 
America again. 

When we travel in the cars, the houses and trees that we see, seem to be 
moving past us, though we are really moving past them. They have 
an apparent motion opposite to the real motion of our train. So 
the sun and stars seem to be moving from east to west, though in 
reality we are moving with the earth from west to east, 

Direction. —The earth is constantly turning round (rotating) 
in the same direction. This direction is called east. The diam¬ 
eter in which it rotates is called the axis. 

The word “east” means dawn, and it was applied to the direction in 
which the earth rotates, because the first rays of the sun are seen in 
that direction. The direction opposite to east is called west. 

NoHli and South.—The earth’s axis is perpendicular to a line run¬ 
ning east and west. The directions in which it points are called 
north and south. Just above the North Pole is a bright star called 
the Pole Star, or Polaris ; and w’e may easily find the direction at 
night by facing this 
star. The east will then 
be on our right, the 
west on our left, and 
south behind us. Sail¬ 
ors find their direction 
at sea by observing 
the North Star or by 
the use of the compass. 

The Four Points — 

N., E., S., and W.— 
are called the cardinal 
points, that is, the 
principal points. Be¬ 
sides these there are 
other intermediate, or 
s e ni i - c a r d i n a 1 


fiorih Pole 



The rotation of the earth. What is the direction of rota¬ 
tion called f How are other directions derived from this? 












DIRECTION, EARTH’S ORBIT, AND APPARENT MOTION OF THE SUN. 


9 


points, such as northeast, north¬ 
west, southeast, and southwest. 

Time.—The time required for 
a complete rotation of the earth 
is called a day. 

The day is divided for convenience 
into twenty-four hours, tlie 
hours into minutes, etc. 

The Clock is an instrument for 
measuring the time of the earth’s 
rotation. The dial is divided 
into twelve equal parts, and the 
hour hand moves twice around 
the dial for every complete rota¬ 
tion of the earth. 

Rate.—The circumference of 
the earth at the equator is 25,000 
miles. A man, therefore, near 
the equator moves toward the 
east at the rate of about one 
thousand miles an hour, or se\i 



Direction of the €p.rth*8 axie. The Pole star is 
the only one which does not change its posi¬ 
tion. The other fixed stars revolve about it 
once each day. The direction of the earth's 
axis is also fixed^ since it always points toward 
this star. 

enteen miles a minute. 


Effects.—The rotation of the earth causes day and night. The 
word day, as here used, means daylight. The earth is all the 



Midday Rays 


To illustrate the relation of longitude and time. The earth occupies 
this position at the time of the equinoxes. The sun rises and sets at 
6 o’clock. The meridians are drawn 30 degrees apart. How many 
are there f As we go east from the meridian, where the midday rays of 
the sun strike, it becomes two hours later at each successive meridian; 
going west from the same meridian, it is two hours earlier at each inter¬ 
val of 30 degrees. How many degrees of longitude are equal to one 
hour of time f How far in degrees is it from midday to sunrise f 
From midday to midnight. 


time turning one- 
half of its surface 
toward the sun, 
and one-half away 
from it. The side 
which at any given 
time is turned 
toward the sun has 
day, the other has 
night. 

Difference of 
Time.—It is this 
rotation of the 
earth which causes 
places to the east 
of us to have sun¬ 


rise and midday earlier than we, and places to the west, later. 

Illustration.—This may be made clear by placing a lamp or candle 
near the school globe. Mark on the globe the location of Liverpool, 
New York, San Francisco, and Honolulu. Now rotate the globe until 
the rays of the lamp just reach Liverpool. Remember that the 
direction in which we rotate the globe is called east. All places west 
of Liverpool are still in darkness. Continue to rotate the globe 
until the rays of the lamp reach New York, San Francisco, etc. 
Does the sun rise earlier or later at these places than at Liverpool ? 

2. Yearly Motion.—In addition to its daily rotation, the 
earth makes an annual revolution about the sun; this is accom¬ 
plished once in every 365^ days, or, more accurately, 365 days, 5 
hours, 48 minutes, and 50 seconds. This period is called a year. 

Earth’s Orbit.—The path of the earth in its annual revolu¬ 
tion is called its orbit. This orbit is an ellipse, but is so nearly a 
circle that it may be regarded as one. The earth is about 
3,000,000 miles nearer the sun in winter than in summer, but the 
average distance from it is about 92,800,000 miles. 

Regarding the orbit as a circle, we obtain its diameter by doubling 


92,800,000. This diameter, multiplied' by 3h gives us the distance 
traveled by the earth in one year. If we divide this distance by the 
number of minutes in a year, we shall find that, in our annual 
journey round the sun, we are traveling at the rate of more than a 
thousand miles a minute. 

A Plane is a level surface like a floor. 

If we imagine an immense plane passing through the center of the sun, 
and reaching the orbit of the earth at every point, we have an idea 
of what is meant by the Plane of the Earth’s Orbit. 

The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit 23^°. 

Illustration.—Suppose the page of this book to represent the Plane of 
the Earth’s Orbit. Hold a pencil so that it is perpendicular to the 
page. It then makes an angle of 90° with it. Lower the top of the 
pencil half way to the page; it then makes an angle of 45°. Lower 
it one-fourth the dis¬ 
tance to the page and 
it will represent very 
nearly the inclination 
of the earth’s axis to 
the plane of its orbit. 

Apparent Motion of 
the Sun.—The yearly 
revolution of the earth, 
combined with the in¬ 
clination of its axis, has 
the effect of making the 
sun ajpjpear to move northward in summer and southward in 
winter. 

The reason for this apparent motion will be understood by reference 
to diagram V, 2. 

Review Topics.—Describe apparent daily motion of sun and stars. What 
really moves? Give illustration. What is the direction of the earth’s daily mo¬ 
tion? Time required for complete rotation? Define the axis and poles of the 
earth. What is the rate of the earth’s rotation? What causes day and night? 
Why do places differ in time? Illustrate. What other motion has the earth? 
What is a year? Define the earth’s orbit. How far are we from the sun? How 
fast do we travel round the sun? What is a plane? How much is the axis of the 
earth inclined? Describe the apparent yearly motion of the sun. 



E 


This picture shows the height of the sun above the horizon at the time of the solstices and 
the equinoxes. The dotted lines show the path of the sun through the sky and measure 
the length of the day at each of these periods. Notice that the sun rises in the true east and sets 
in the true west at the time of the equinoxes (see p. 12). At the winter solstice it rises and sets 
south of the east and west points; at the summer solstice it rises and sets north of them. 


Plane of the Earth's Orbit 



The shaded part of this picture represents a portion of the 
plane of the earth’s orbit. The orbit is the curved path 
which the earth follows around the sun. Notice how much 
the axis of the earth is inclined toward a line that is per¬ 
pendicular to the plane of the orbit. 



























10 


LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.—PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS. 


IV. I^ATITUDE AND DONGITUDE. 

1. The Position of places on the earth is described by means 
of circles supposed to be drawn upon its surface. 

Every place is supposed to have two such circles, one running north 
and south, called the meridian of the place, the other running 
east and west, called its parallel. Try to describe the position 





The use of parallels and meridians in fixing the location of places. 
of the dot A on the surface of globe I; it cannot be done because 
there is no place to measure from. On globe II we may say the dot 
A is on a certain parallel. But this parallel runs all the way 
around the earth. Let us draw also the meridian of A; we may see 
now that the dot is at the intersection of the two circles. 


2. A Great Circle is any circle that divides the globe into 
two equal parts or hemispheres. 

3. A Small Circle is any circle that divides the earth into 
two unequal parts. 



Suppose two oranges be cut as shown in the picture ; which is divided 
equally ? which unequally ? Examine the edges of the pieces ; which 

are great circles ? Small 
circles ? 

Every circle is supposed to 
' be' divided"^ into 360 equal 
parts called degrees, marked 
(°). Each degree is divided 


into 60 minutes, 
marked ('), and 
each minute into 
60 seconds, 
marked (’). 

Since all circles 


Oranges cut into equal and %nto unequal parts. 


contain the same number of degrees, it is evident that the length 
of a degree will depend on the size of the circle of which it is 

the part. This will be made 
clear by a study of the accom¬ 
panying diagram. 

4. The Equator is a 

great circle passing round 
the earth midway between 
the poles. It divides equally 
the surface of the earth. 
Hence its name. 

6. Latitude. — Distance 
north or south of the 
Equator is called Latitude. 
It is expressed in degrees 
(°), minutes ('), and sec- 


Thres circles drawn from the same center hamng 
parts of their circumferences divided into degrees. 
One fourth of a circle contains ninety degrees and is 
called a quadrant. Any portion of a circumference is 
called an arc. Compare the let^hs of arcs of thirty 
degrees in the three circles. Whidi circle has the 
longest arct Which the shortest? Notice that each arc 
on the circumference corresponds to an angle at the 
center having the same number of degrees. 


onds ("). 

Places on the equator have no 
latitude. No place can have 
more than 90° of latitude, for 
no place can be farther from 


the Equator than the Pole is. 
Places north of the Equator 
are in north latitude, those 
south of it, in south lati¬ 
tude. The degrees of latitude 
are numbered on the sides of 
maps. 

Those regions of the earth lying 
near the Equator are some¬ 
times called low latitudes. 
High latitudes are those 
near the poles. 

6. Parallels of latitude 

are small circles that pass 
round the earth parallel to 
the Equator. 



The lines that are drawn from 

east to west across maps are parallels of latitude. East and west 
distances are measured along these lines. 


7. The Tropics are small circles parallel to the Equator, and 
23 degrees from it. The northern circle is the Tropic of Can¬ 
cer ; the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn. 


Tropic is derived from a Greek word meaning to turn. The Tropics 
mark the farthest points north and south of the Equator that have the 
sun directly overhead. They are so named because the sun in his 
annual course appears to turn on reaching a point directly above 
these circles and to move in the opposite direction (see V, 4). 

8. The Polar Circles are small circles 23 >4 degrees from the 
poles. The one drawn about the North Pole is the Arctic 
Circle; the one about the South Pole is the Antarctic Circle. 

The length of the days and of the nights within these circles varies from 
24 hours to six months. On the circles themselves the extreme length 
is 24 hours. This increases to six months at the poles. This will be 
seen from a study of diagram on page 12. 


9. Meridian Circles are great circles that pass through 
the poles. They are used on maps and globes to mark off into 



Meridians and parallels drawn upon a plobet The heavy meridian in A passes through Green¬ 
wich. Degrees of latitude are markedalong the 70th meridian; degrees of longitude are marked 
below the equator. In B the globe is turned so that parallels muy be seen running entirely 
around the globe. Notice that they become smaller and smaller as they approach the pole, where the 
length of a degree of longitude {that is, 1-360 of a paralld) becomes zero. 


equal portions the entire distance east and west round the earth 
on any parallel. 

10. A Meridian is half a meridian circle. It extends from 
pole to pole. 

Meridian means midday. As the sun reaches each meridian, it is 
noon at all places through which that meridian passes from pole to 
pole. 


































































LATITUDE Am LONGITUDE.—CHANGE OF SEASONS. 


11 


There is no limit to the number of parallels, meridians, and meridian 
circles that may be drawn upon the globe. In fact, every place on 
the earth has its own meridian and parallel whicli may be found by 
careful computation. 

11. Longitude. —Distance east or Avest of a given meridian is 
called Longitude. It is expressed in degrees (°), minutes ('), 
and seconds ("). Longitude is reckoned from the Prime, or 
First Meridian. 


A Prime Meridian is any meridian from which a nation may choose 
to reckon longitude. The International Meridian Conference, which 
met in 1884 at Washington, recommended that the Meridian at 
Greenwich, England, be adopted as the Prime Meridian for all 
nations. 

If a place is east of the prime meridian, it is in Fast Longitude; if 
on the west, it is in West Longitude. The degrees of longitude 
are numbered on the top 
and bottom of maps. 

Places on a prime me¬ 
ridian have no longitude. 

[The Poles also have no 
longitude, as they are at 
the place where all meri¬ 
dians meet.] Wt 

Longitude is measured 
on the equator and on 
parallels of latitude east 
and west from the prime 
meridian. Notice that east 
longitude and - Avest longi¬ 
tude meet at 180°, which is the greatest distance from the prime 
meridian that any place can haA^e. 

Length, of Degrees. —As all the meridians meet at the poles, 
and diverge or spread out thence till they reach the equator, the 
distance betAveen any two varies Avith the latitude. Therefore a 
degree of longitude is greater at the equator than it is either 
north or south of it. 



^uth PoU 

The equator divided into degrees of longitude. 


A degree of longitude at the equator is nearly 69.2 miles; degrees di¬ 
minish in length until the pole is reached, where there is no such 
thing as longitude. 


Length of a Degree of Longitude measured on every \Qth Parallel of Latitude. 


Lat. 

Miles. 

Lat. 

Miles. 

Lat. 

Miles. 

0° 

69.19 

30° 

.59.0 

60° 

34.5 

10° 

.67.9 

40° 

52.3 

70° 

23.6 

20° 

65.0 

50° 

44.4 

80° 

11.9 


NORTH Tlie Mariner’s Compass consists of 

a card which represents the horizon 
and its points, attached to a magnetic 
needle. This needle is balanced on a 
pivot and always points toward the 
north. 

The top of the card is marked north, the 
right hand east, the bottom south, 
and the left hand west. 

The four points—N., E., S., and W.—are 
called the cardinal points, that is, 
the principal points. Besides these 
there are other intermediate points, 
^ such as northea.st, northwest. 

Mariner's Compass. ^, 

southeast, and southwest. 

The boundaries of states and countries are frequently parallels and me¬ 
ridians, as these may always be easily found. 



Review Topics—Position of places on the earth. Great circle. Small 
circle. How are circles divided ? Equator. Why so called ? Latitude. How 
much latitude can a place have ? How little ? Parallels. The tropics. Polar 
circles. Meridian circles. Meridians. Longitude. A prime meridian. How 
much longitude can a place have ? How little ? Are degrees of longitude all of 
the same length? Do degrees of latitude vary in length? How long are they? 
Explain the use of latitude and longitude. The Mariner's compass. Its use. 


V. CHANGE OF SEASONS. 



1. Inclination of the Earth’s Axis. —The axis of the earth 
is inclined to the plane of its orbit, just as the axis of a top often 
inclines toward the floor when it begins to spin upon it. 

The top spins round on its axis, and at the same time may 
travel round some point on the floor. It has thus two motions. 

In like manner the earth turns round on its axis in daily rota¬ 
tion, and, at the same time, travels round the sun in yearly revo¬ 
lution. . 

When a top is 
first thrown, it 
Avill often move 
around some 
point with its 
axis inclined, as 
shown in the 
picture. Imagine 
the top spinning 


A top spinning and moving about a point. 


in space and 
moving about in 
a circle, and you 
will have a cor¬ 


If the earth were a perfect sphere, a degree of latitude would be every¬ 
where of just the same length; but owing to the flattening of the 
earth, it is -h of a mile longer at the poles than at the equator; at the 
equator it is half a mile less than a degree of longitude, while at the 
poles it is i of a mile more. Practically, a degree of latitude may be 
regarded as everywhere equal to 691r miles. 

12. The convenience of using latitude and longitude at sea 
may be readily shown. 

Suppose a whaling ship in the Pacific Ocean wishes to sail for Honolulu 
in the Hawaiian Islands. By making an observation of the sun the 
captain finds that his latitude is 40° north, and by consulting the 
ship’s chronometer, or clock, he finds his longitude to be 135° west. 
By examining his chart of the Pacific Ocean he marks his exact 
position, and finds that Honolulu lies to the southwest. He accord¬ 
ingly steers by the compass in that direction. 


rect idea of the rotation and revolution of the earth. 

There is this difference between the earth and the top; the top inclines 
more and more as its spinning slacks, but the earth never slacks 
its rate, and the inclination of its axis is always the same. 
It inclines from the perpendicular at the constant angle of 231°; and 
the north pole constantly points toward the north star. 

If the earth’s axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, the sun’s 
rays would come from the same direction throughout the year; as a 
result of this, the days and nights would be of equal length all the 
year, and there would be no change of seasons. The frigid zones 
would have perpetual winter, the temperate zones perpetual spring; 
in the torrid zone the climate would be uniformly hot throughout 
the year. Just as this position of the axis-would result in a uni¬ 
form temperature throughout the year in each latitude, so it would 
make the winds and rainfall uniform throughout the year. 























12 


CHANGE OF SEASON; THE ZONES. 


2. Effect.—The inclination of the axis of the earth, combined 
with its revolution in its orbit, causes the seasons; for when the 
earth is in one part of its orbit, the north pole is turned toward 
the sun; and when in the opposite part, the south pole is turned 
toward the sun. 

3. Eqiunoxes.—T^vice every year day and night are equal in 
length. These times are called the Equinoxes (aequus, equal; 
nox, night). They mark the seasons of spring and autumn. 



In passing northward from C to A, the sun crosses, or is opposite to the 
Equator at B. This happens on the 21st of March every year. On 
that day the sun sets at the south pole and rises at the north pole. At 
all other places it rises and sets at six o’clock; consequently the day 
and night are then equal: this is the Vernal or Spring Equinox. 

Six months afterward—on the 22d of September—as the sun returns 
from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn, he again 
crosses the equator. 

It now sets at the north pole and rises 
at the south. Day and night are 
again equal; and this time is called 
the Autumnal Equinox. 

4. Solstices.—When the sun in its 
apparent journey reaches the most 
northerly point in summer, and the 
most southerly in winter, it appears 
to stand still for several days. 

One of these “ standstill ” places is 
called the summer solstice, the other 
the winter solstice. 

Summer Solstice. —On the 21st of 
June the sun reaches the summer 
solstice, or northern hmit of its jour¬ 
ney. It is now 285 ° north of the 
equator, on the Tropic of Cancer. 

At noon, therefore, its rays are 
vertical (directly overhead) to all 






To Uluatrate why slanting rays o] the sun heat the 
earth less than vertical rays. In the -figure the 
vertical rays fall upon a surface represented by C 
B. The same number of rays striking the earth in 
a slanting direction are spread over twice as much 
surface, namely A B. It is clear that the rays 
the two when concentrated would be hotter. 



But at this time the rays of 
the sun fall slantingly, and 
therefore feebly, on the north¬ 
ern part of the earth, because 
(as seen in the diagram of the 
Orbit of the Earth) that part 
now leans away from it. 

Therefore we in the northern 
hemisphere have now cold 
weather, and we call the 
December solstice the winter 
solstice. Having reached 
the winter solstice, the sun 
turns again toward the north. 

5. Seasons.—Thus the 
year is divided into seasons, 
and the seasons on 
sides of the equator are opposite; that is, when it is winter with 
us in the northern part of the earth, it is summer with the people 
on the southern side of the equator. 

Review Topics.— Illustrate the inclination of the earth’s axis. How is the 
earth like a spinning top? How does it differ from the top? What is the effect of 
the inclination of the earth’s axis? How often are day and night equal every 
year? What are these times called? What seasons do they mark? Explain 
the vernal equinox. The autumnal equinox. The solstices. When do they 
occur. Summer solstice. Winter solstice. What is said of the seasons? 

VI. THE ZOXES. 

1. Zones.—The Tropics and the Polar Circles divide the earth’s 
surface into five great belts or zones which differ in temperature. 

They are called the Torrid, the North Frigid, the South 
Frigid, the North Temperate, and the South Temperate Zones. 

2. The Torrid Zone.—The belt between the two Tropics is 
the Torrid Zone. It is 47° Avide. It embraces tAvo-fifths of the 

entire surface of the earth. This is 
the tropical region. 

The sun is vertical tAvice a year to 
all places Avithin these regions, and 
th«re is no cold weather; the people 
do not, as a rule, even build chimneys 
to their houses. The year is usually 
divided into tAvo seasons, the rainy 
and the dry, corresponding to our 
summer and Avinter. 

The sun is never vertical to any place 
north of the Tropic of Cancer, nor to 
anyplace south of the Tropic of Capricorn. 

3. The Frigid Zones.—The space 
that lies betAveen the Arctic Circle 
and the north pole is the North 
Frigid Zone. The South Frigid 
Zone is betAveen the Antarctic Circle 
Each of these 


^ during each month of the 


Autumnal 
Equinox 

places on or near that tropic. Con- Illustratirig the position of the earth with reference to the sun . _ . - 

___ Notice that half of the earth is always lighted up. At the equinoxes the parallels a.nd the SOllth nnle 

Sequently in all places north of the of latitude are divided equally between light and darkness, showing that the days and 

ennntnr i<? the wsi<rni «eo<son cif nights are equal. At all other times the parallels are divided unequally, showing that 7nne<j iq eieenlnT* in cViQno hoTTlnr.. o 

equator tms is tne warm season 01 ^nemuLl in length. Take any parallel, trace it around (he ^OUeS IS OirCUiaT in Snape, UaVing a 

the year. drde and note how the length of the day changes in each month. Notice also how (he OQJ." 'T'V. 

_ _ /-w 1 ctnj . change of seasons depends upon the direction in which the sun’s rays strike the earth. ratllUS OI . lUe SUmmerS are 

VV inter Solstice. — On the 22 d 01 On June2\ the North Pole is turned toward the earth and the northern hemisphere has , 1.1 

summer. What is true about the seasons on December 22 7 SllOrt, and the Winters long and 

severe. As we approach the poles, the days in summer become 
longer and longer, till at the poles there is but one day and one 
night during the Avhole year, each being six months long. 


December the sun reaches its other 
solstice at the Tropic of Capricorn. It is now vertical at noon to 
all places on or near that tropic, and the southern hemisphere has 
summer. 


























THE ZONES; GLOBES AND MAPS. 


13 


NORTITPOU: 


To an observer at the pole the sun has no rising and setting as we un¬ 
derstand these terms. About March 21 its first rays appear. Fol¬ 
lowing the horizon it makes a complete circuit of the sky every 
twenty-four hours, rising spirally for three months until it reaches 
a height of 231°. This is at the time of the summer solstice. It 
then descends as it rose, disappearing below the horizon Septem¬ 
ber 21, and the long polar winter begins. As the sun sinks only 23i° 
below the horizon, it does not become entirely dark in the Frigid 
Zones, but twilight 
prevails tlirough 
the long winter. 

At the time of the 
Vernal Equinox, 
when the season 
for its return draws 
near, the inhabit¬ 
ants of these icy 
lands anxiously 
look for it, and 
climb the moun¬ 
tains to catch a 
glimpse of its ear¬ 
liest beams. From 
this time (March 
21) until September 
22 , when the sun 
again reaches the 
equator, there is 
uninterrupted day- SOUTH POLE 

light at the pole. Map of the hemispheres, showing the zones and their boundaries 

These circumstances of day and night occur in reversed order in 
the South Frigid Zone. 

The area of the South Frigid Zone is mostly land, while that of the 
North Frigid Zone is about equally divided between land and 
water. 

4. The Temperate Zones.’—The region between the Tropic 
of Cancer and the Arctic Circle is the Nortli Temperate Zone. 
That between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle 
is the South Temperate Zone. Each is 43° wide. 

In the temperate zones the year is divided into the four 
seasons—spring, summer, autumn, and udnter. 

A little more than half the earth’s surface is 
contained in these two zones. The North 
Temperate Zone is the one in which we live. 

All parts of the United States, except the north¬ 
ern portion of Alaska and our Island Regions 
(see p. 82), lie within it. 


VII. GLOBES AND MAPS. 


NORTH POLE 




In Mercator’s Projection the map .surface is a hollow cylinder 
inclosing the globe. The equator and parallels are then drawn upon 
the cylinder in their proper latitude, and the meridians become 
straight lines running from top to bottom. All other lines are 
drawn according to the parallels and meridians thus obtained. 
The cylinder is then, cut open and spread out. The result is a 
map simitar to that on pp. 166-167. It will be noticed that since 
the cylinder touches the globe at the equator, that circle will be 

represented at its true 
size ;but as the parallels 
of latitude are all the 
same size as the equa¬ 
tor, the map will repre¬ 
sent places in high lati¬ 
tudes much too large. 

Mercator’s chart dis¬ 
torts the surface it rep¬ 
resents, as every chart 
must do that attempts 
to represent on a plane 
the surface of a sphere; 
but it distorts in such 
a manner as to make 
all places on it pre¬ 
serve their true course 
from each other. This 
also makes it easy to 
take their true distance 
SOUTH POLE apart. 

The light shading indicates the highland regions of the earth. maps in this 

bo5k, except the two named above, are made either by Conical 
Projection or by Spherical Projection. These metliods give 
maps which are most nearly like the countries themselves. As 
shown in the figures, a cone or sphere is supposed to touch the 
globe at the parallel which is in the center of the country to be 
mapped. The map is then obtained in the same manner as Mercator’s 
projection. 

Direction is shown on all maps by meridians and parallels. Distances 
are found by a scale of miles attached to each map which usually 
shows the equivalent in miles of a line one inch long drawn on 
the map. 

Review Topics.—A globe. How may it be divided? Maps. How can we 
make a map of the world ? What part of the map is north ? South ? East ? 
West ? For what is a “ scale of miles” used ? Who was Mercator ? His charts. 
Other methods of making maps. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


. Showing how Mercator’s 

1. A Globe IS the most natural represen ta- chart u made. 

tion of the earth because it is round. 
U pon its surface may be draAvn the divi¬ 
sions of land and water and the earth’s 
circles. 

2. Maps are representations of the 
earth on a flat surface and are more 
convenient than globes. By means of 
maps, continents, countries, and smaller 
sections of the earth’s surface may be 
represented of any size or scale desired. 

The maps used by navigators are made upon the plan invented by Mer¬ 
cator, a native of Belgium. 


VIII. NATURAL DIVISIONS OP THE EARTH. 

1. Land and Water.—The surface of the earth is composed 
of land and water. 

The land forms about one-fourth of the earth’s surface; the 
water about three-fourths. 

2. Divisions of Land and Water. —Bodies of land are 
classified, according to size, as Continents and Islands. Certain 
portions of these are classified, according to form, as Capes, 
Peninsulas, and Isthmuses. 

Portions of land are classified according to variations of 
surface, as Mountains, Hills, Plateaus, Plains, and Valleys. 

Bodies of water are classified as Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, or Bays, 
Sounds, Straits, Lakes, and Rivers. 





























14 


FOEMS OF LAND. 






Montauk Point, the eastern extremity of Long Island, showing lighthouse and life-saving statUiu 


IX. THE POEMS OF LAND. 

1. Continents.—There are six large masses of land called con¬ 
tinents, viz., Nortli America, South America, Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and Australia. Since Europe and Asia 
form a single land mass, they are often described 
as one continent under the name Eurasia. 

2. An Island is a body of land that is sur¬ 
rounded by water, as Cuba, Madagascar, New 
Guinea. 

A group of islands is sometimes called an 

Archipelag^o. 

Islands are 
divided into / 
two classes, con- / 

tinental and / ^ 

oceanic islands. 

Continental 
Islands are 
those that lie 
near the conti- 
nents, from 
which they are 
separated by 
shallow seas. 

They are supposed to have once been a part of the 
continents and to have become separated from them 
by a sinking of the land. This allowed the water 
of the ocean to overflow the low places, thus leav¬ 
ing some of the higher elevations along the coast 
surrounded by water. Tlie plants, animals, and 


A high cape or headland is called a promontory. The Lizard at the 
southwestern end of England is a point. 

6. A Coast or Shore is that part of the land bordering upon 
the water. 

The character of the coast-line is constantly 
changing. The waves wear away the rocks, crumb¬ 
ling them to sand, and the tides and currents 
distribute it in beaches and flats along the shore 
and at the mouths of rivei’S. 

Changes in the level of the land are more easily 
seen at the seashore than inland. By the sinking 
—— of the coast, the 

mouths of streams 
Z' are deepened, form- 

/ *■ fiords and 

/ estuaries, thus af- 

/ Vxv J \ fording excellent 

harbors. A rising 
coast, however, 
brings the level sea 
bottom to the sur- 
face, forming 
coastal plains, 
but destroying the 
harbors entii’ely or 

making them too shallow for large vessels. 

So important is the coast to a commei'cial country that 
governments spend large sums of money in deepening 
harbors, erecting lighthouses, and signals, maintain¬ 
ing life-saving stations, in making maps of the coast 
showing depth of water and channels, thus providing 


rocks of the continental islands resemble those of Bird’s-eye view of the great land masses called fQj. safetv of ships and sailors and for the security of 

continents, and the waters that separate them. 

Between the Pacific and Indian Oceans can be merchants against loSS. 
seen a part of the sixth continent, Australia. 

A mountain 


the continents near which they lie. 

Oceanic Islands lie at a distance from the continents and are sur¬ 
rounded by deep water. They are either volcanic or coral islands. 

3. A Peninsula {pcene, almost; insula, island) is a portion 
of land that is almost suri’ounded by water. 

Florida is a peninsula, Arabia is a peninsula, Portugal and Spain 
together form a peninsula. 

4. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land connecting two larger 
bodies of land, as the Isthmus of Panama. 

r 


7. Mountains are high elevations of land, 
range consists of a series of mountains. A number of ranges 
extending in the same general direction is called a Mountain 
System. Hills are lower elevations than mountains. 

Mountain ranges were formed by the crumpling up and folding of 
the rocky layers of the earth’s crust, as it contracted to fit the shrink¬ 
ing interior. These folds were pushed up higher and higher by a 
gradual rising of the land. As they were being raised by forces 
within the earth, the rain, streams, the atmosphere, and ice were 
wearing away the softer parts of the surface, leaving the harder rocks 
standing out in sharp peaks with narrow valleys between them. This 
is the second stage of mountain making. In the last stage the ragged 
outlines are worn down and the valleys gradually filled. 

How mountains all'ect man.—Moimtains are barriers to travel, 
and often serve as boundaries to countries, keeping people from 


A small peninsula, promontory and cape. This is Monaco, on the Mediterranean coast. The 
coast line beyond the peninsula curves in, forming a small bay on which the city of Nice is built. 

Many important isthmuses are cut by canals to enable ships to pass 
between the bodies of water on either side of them. 

6. A Cape, Point, or Headland is the extreme end of any 
land projecting into the water, as Cape Hatteras, Cape Horn. 






















VOLCANOES, PLAINS, AND VALLEYS. 


15 





The cone surrounding the crater of Mt. Italy, shoicing th^ 

lava beds, out of which the mountain is partly built. 


spreading into the regions beyond. They are sometimes cros.sed by 
gaps, or passes, which become important highways of ti’avel and 
te'ade. They are usually covered witli forests, making a home for 
animals valuable for their flesh and skins. The fractures in the rock 
layers of mountains have often been tilled with minerals containing 
gold, silver, copper, and other metals. Such deposits are called veins. 

The height of inuiintaiiis is always reckoned from the level of tlie 
sea. We can 
measure the 
height of a 
mountain by 
means of a 
barometer . 

At the sea- 
level the 
quicksil ver 
in the tube of 
the barome¬ 
ter stands at 
the height of 
30 inches. 

Now as the 
barometer is 
taken up 
above the 


, Vieu) of the Rocky Mountains in Canada. 
S6tl, tUBqUlClx- mountains. Thousands of years will be 


7 hese, like'the Alps, are young 
required for the rain and the atmos- 
Hr ragged < 


sil\rer will frost, to wear down their raggea outlines and to fill up the 

d V Cl will valleys. Notice the change in vegetation from the foot of the mountains 

f^ll in tll6 their summits. At the base one sees flowering plants and trees of consider¬ 
able height. But as we ascend ive find the trees dwarfed and vegetation scanty, 

tubs about until at the tops the mountains are clothed with snow and ice. 

one-tenth of an inch for every 60 feet of peiqjendicular ascent. 

8. A Volcano is an openings in the earth through wliich issue 
steam, vapors and gases, 
heated stones, and lava, or 
melted rock. These ma¬ 
terials build up a cone- 
shaped mountain around 
the opening which is usu¬ 
ally bowl-shaped and is 
called the crater. 


Volcanoes are the best 
proof that the interior of 
the earth or parts of it 
are 

condition. The cause of have passed, and their tops rounded of! by rain and snou', rivers and streams 


a liio-lilv Allegheny Mountains in Virginia. These mountains are crumples in the earths crust t Ween 

a iiiQiiiy neaieu were once much higher, but they are very old. Thc^ have been worn down during the ages 


The Alps. As the thick layers of rock icere slowly crushed together by the contracting of the 
earth's cnist, they crumpled and tilted up along certain lines. .4« they rose higher, the high 
peaks which you see here were formed. These are young mountains. H e can tell this by their 
sharp anrf rugged peaks and by the fossils (remains of animal life) found there. They are 
atm slowly rising, but their tops are being worn down by physical agencies. 

Java is the center of it. This island has twenty-one active vol¬ 
canoes. Sometimes great injury is caused by volcanoes. ^Nlore 
than eighteen hundred years ago the cities of Herculaneum and 
Pompeii, in Italy, were covered with ashes thrown from Mt. 
Vesuvius. In 1906 Vesuvius destroyed several towns at its base. . 
When a volcano ceases to liave eruptions, and is in progress of extinc¬ 
tion, it often sends out sulphurous gases, and deposits sulphur 
in large quantities; it then becomes a .solfatara. 

9. A Plateau, or Table-land, is an elevated plain, often 
broken or bordered by ranges of mountains. 

The term Highland is often used to desig¬ 
nate a region of considerable elevation. It 
may contain lofty mountain ranges; as the 
Pacific Highland in North America. 

10. A Plain is a broad extent of 
nearly level land. 

In North America, the immense plains of the 
Mississippi Valley are called prairie.s. In 
South America similar i)lains arecalled llaiukS 
(lyah'nos), pampas, or selvas; and in 
Russia and Asia, steppes. 

11. A Valley is the land lying be- 
hills or mountains, or between 

ranges of mountains. 


the explosions that accompany the eruptions of volcanoes is the 
sudden formation of steam caused by water finding its way to the 
heated rocks. 


12. Deserts are wide wastes of land, sometimes flat and 
sandy, sometimes hilly, or mountainous, and generally destitute 
of vegetation and water. 

An oasis or fertile spot in a de.sert is made so by springs which 
come up to the 
surface. 


Volcanoes are usually situated near the coast line. There is a remark- 



Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania. These mountains were not broken into sharp ridges 
when the earth’s surface contracted, but the horizontal layers of rock were raised slowly, with very 
little crumpling, forming at first a plateau, out of which the mountains which we see there to-day 
have been carved by streams and other physical agencies. Their tops, however, are nearly on the 
same level. Such a mountain region is sometimes called a dissected plateau. 

able series of them extending from Tierra del Fuego to Alaska. The 
most active volcanic region in the world is in the East Indies. 


Review Top¬ 
ics.—Define conti¬ 
nent; island; conti¬ 
nental islands:oeeanic 
islands; peninsula: 
istlunus; cape; prom¬ 
ontory. What arc 
mountains? Ranges? 
Mountain systems? 
Hills? What is a vol¬ 
cano ? A crater? 
Wliat is a plateau? 
A highland? A plain? 
What is a valley? 
What arc deserts? 
What is an oasis? 
























16 


PLAINS.—OCEANS. 



ir prav 

down from the mountains by streams and spread out evenly over the ocean bed. 

X. THE AVATER. 

1. The Sea is the vast body of salt water which covers about 
three-fourths of the globe. It is really one body surrounding the 
eontinental land masses on every side, but is divided by them into 
live oceans, known as the Pacific, the Tnrtian, the Atlantic, the 
Ai’ctic, and the Antarctic. 

AA'aves.—The surface of the ocean is continually broken into waves 
and ripples by the wind. AVaves are really a movement of the 
water up and down; but this movement, once started, spreads 
nntil the waves break upon shores hundreds of miles away. 
Waves vary in height from a few indies to fifty feet or more. As 
they approach the shore, the lower part is held back by friction against 
the sea bottom, while the top plunges forward as a breaker. This 
constant plunge of breakers against rocky shores undermines the 
cliffs and grinds the broken fragments to sand and pebbles. This 


Tides.—Every¬ 
where along 
the seashore 
and in the 
mouths of riv¬ 
ers that, flow 
into the sea, 
we may ob¬ 
serve the re¬ 
gular rising 
and falling of 
the water 
called the tides. 

For six hours 
the water rises, 

, The ocean heating against the rocky cliffs^ ahounng how the waves breoK 

^ncl it IS then off pieces of rock and grind them into small grains of sand, 

high, or flood, tide; it then falls for six hours and then we have 
low, or ebb, tide. High tide occurs at any place when the moon is 
either over tliat place or on tlie side of the earth opposite it. 
Hence we infer that the tides are caused by the attraction that 
the moon has for the water. During one complete rotation of 
the earth, each place would come once underneath the moon. But 
the moon is also moving around the earth in the same direction as 
the earth rotates. Hence each place is brought underneath the moon, 
and high tide occurs about fifty minutes later each day. 




The ocean. The ocean once covered the entire surface of the earth. Then its water was fresh. 
When land {then solid rock) appeared, the waves began to wear the rock down and spread the 
ground-up rock material over the ocean bed. This work has been going on ever since. 

sand is partly spread out over the ocean bottom by currents and 
partly washed back upon the shore, forming beaches that slope gently 
outward into deep water. The arrangement of the sand depends 
upon the direction of the ocean currents that flow along the coast. 
Along the middle and 
south Atlantic coast of the 
United States it is piled up 
in long beaches parallel 
with the shore. The still 
water between these 
beaches and the shore is 
known as a lagoon. 

Such lagoons ai’e often 
filled by sediment brought 
down by rivers and be¬ 
come salt marshes or 
meadows. 

AiVhen the sand is deposited 




A beach, showing breakers rolling up upon the sand. The lower part of the waves, as it reaches 
shallow water, is checked by friction against the bottom, while the upper part rolls forward and 
breaks on the beach. The smooth beach shows how the action of the waves levels surfaces. 

The Siin also attracts the wafer, but less than the moon because it is so 
■ much farther away. When the sun and moon are attracting the 
water in the same direction, the highest, or spring tide occurs; 
but when they are attracting it at right angles to each other, we have 
the lowest or neap tide. The height of the tide varies from a few 
inches off headlands to sixty feet in inlets with converging shores. 
The high tide enables ships to pass in and out of harbors that are 
usually too shallow on account of sand bars that form at their mouths. 


o- 


£) 


©■ 


2. A Bay, Gulf, or Sea, 

is a sheet of water partly 
surrounded by land; as the 
Red Sea, Hudson Bay, the 
Gulf of IMexico. Some bays 
are called bights; as the 
Bight of Benin. 

3. A Strait, Pass, or 
Passage, is a narrow 
channel that connects two 

^ Showing how the highest and lowest tides are caxued. When the sun and moon are in a straight line with (he , i i? 

across the mouth of rivers oxtract theunter in the same direction, and the highest tides occur. The second view shov's the sun larger sheetS OI "Water; US 

and moon at right angles with each other. Since each draws ike ivater tow ard itself^ it is evident that the tide will ^ ^ 

it is called a l)ar and he-lower than when both are attracting the water in the same direction. The result is the lowest or neap tide. tillO Strait of Gibraltar. 

comes a hindrance to navigation. Wlien a sandy beach forms at 



■0 


right angles to the coast it becomes 
spit becomes a hook. 


a spit. When curved, the 


4. A Sound is a passage of water or strait not having much 
depth; as Long Island Sound. 




































OCEAN CURRENTS, RIVERS, AND LAKES. 


17 





heatetl or coolcil, ami as they pass over tlie bordering coasts they give 
to them their own leinperatures. 

Tlie Gulf Stream (wiginates in the great Equatorial Current of the 


Chart showing the circulation of the waters of the ocean. Study the location and direction of the 
different currents. Notice that in the equatorial regions the general direction of the currents is 
eastward. In the temperate regions^ it is westward. Compare with the directions of the winds in 
chart on page 18. 

5. An Ocean Current is a stream flowing through the ocean, 
as the Grulf Stream. 

Ocean Currents seem to be mainly caused by the winds. Tlie fact 
that they move in the same direction as the wind 
and change their courses when the wiml changes, 


.4 sugar plantation in Louisiana. This is also a plain made up of material brought from the 
mountains by the Mississippi river and its tributaries. When the river overflowed its banks O'is 
material was deposited and a plain was giacually built up. Land formed in this way is called 
alluvial land, or a flood plain. On the map of Louisiana, page 59, you can see hou' the Missis¬ 
sippi river is using the material which it 6 mgs down to build up land at its mouth. 

Atlantic. The temperature of its waters, as they pass the Strait of 
Florida, is often as high as 85° Fahr. 

They cross the Atlantic, carrying with them sufficient warmth to give 
the Orkney Isles, in latitude 59° north, an extraordinarily mild 
climate. 

6. A Harbor is a sheltered arm of the sea 
where ships may anchor and ride in safety 

INLAND WATERS. 

7. A River is a stream of fresh water formed 
by the union of smaller streams, which are called 
branclie.s or tributaries. 


Echo Lake, in the White Mountains of Neic Hampshire. A dam was 
built across the ruxrrow valley with bowlders from a glacier which 
imprisoned the waters and formed this lake, which is fed by springs. 


is proof of this. The equatorial currents are 
driven we.st by the trade winds. Striking the 
shores of the continents they are deflected North 
or South and circle about the regions of tropical 
calms in whirls and cdilies. Notice the direction of these I'ddies in 
each hemisphere and compare with the direction of the winds. 

Warm ami Gold Currents.—Gcean currents are important equal¬ 
izers of temperature. The equatorial currents move toward the polar 
regions and are wanner than the neighboring waters, while the 
polar currents mov'ing toward the equator are colder than the waters 
near them. Hence the winds blowing over these currents are either 


W ide river valley in Virginia 

The source of a river is the place where it begins. This may be a 
spring, a lake, or a glacier Sometimes a river is formed by the 
confluence of two other rivers as in the ca.se of the Ohio. Its mouth is 
the place wliei’e it flows into some larger river, into a lake or the sea. 

The bed of a river is the land over whicli its waters flow. 

The right bank of a river is that bank which would be on oui- right 
hand if we were going down the stream. The other is the left bank. 


Au Sable river in the Adirondack Moun¬ 
tains, New York, showing how r'/vers cut 
their wau through the hardest rocks, form¬ 
ing a gorge or chasm. This process re- 
(juires thousands of years. But it is only 
the beginning of valley formation. 



8. A river and its tributaries together form tvhat is called 
a river .system. 

9. The basin or valley of a river is the counttw through which 
the river and its tributaries flow. 

As rivers flow from the higher to the lower ])arts of a country, we can 
tell, by observing the course of the rivers, in what direction the land 
slopes. 

Ofliees of Rivers and Streams.—Rivers cut natural gutters or drains 
for carrying the water back to the sea after it has performed its mani¬ 
fold offices. 

More clearly to understand the offices of rivers, let us follow in im¬ 
agination the water which feeds them, from the time it comes from 
the sea as vapor, until it returns to the sea again through the river. 










































































18 


THE WINDS. 





It has formed clouds which screen the earth from the heat and cold; 
it has been condensed into rain, and has refreshed the land with show¬ 
ers; it lias fed the springs and wells; it lias worn away the rocks, 
and, gathering from them the materials of which rich and fertile soil 
is made, has spread it out over their plains; and while it has been 
doing all this, it has turned mills, driven machinery, floated ships and 
boats which carried the produce of the laud from one place to another. 

10. A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land; as Lake 
Superior, the Great Salt Lake, Lake Victoria. 

Review Topics.—The sea and its divisions. What is a bay, gulf, or sea? 
What is a strait? A sound? What is said of the Gulf Stream? A harbor. A 
river. The source of a river. The mouth. The bed of a river. What is a river 
system? What is a river basin? How can you tell the slope of the land? What 
are the offices of rivers? What is a lake? 


the earth from west to east, the cur¬ 
rent from the north pole becomes a 
northeast wind, and the one from 
the south pole a southeast wind. 
These winds are called, from their 
value to commerce, or from their con¬ 
stant direction, the Trade-Winds. 

3. The Cotinter-Trade-Winds.— 
The heated air rising Avithin the tropics 
floAvsintwo currents toAvard the poles 
in a direction opposite to that of the 
Trade-Winds. These return currents 
are the Counter-Trade, or Westerly 
Winds. 


XI. THE WIXDS. 

1. Winds are currents of air. They are mainly caused by one 
part of the atmosphere becoming hotter or colder than another. 

Whenever this takes place, the air moves. 

Air Movements.—If a fire be kindled 
in a fireplace or stove, the air in the 
fireplace or stove is heated, becomes 
lighter, and is pressed upward by the 
cooler, heavier air of the room. The 
air now flows steadily from all parts 
of the room towai’d the fireplace or 
stove. 

The rays of the sun are like such a fire. 

They are always heating the air more 
in some places than in others. At 
the Equator and within the tropics 
they fall vertically, and consequent¬ 
ly the air within the tropics is hotter 
than elsewhere. Hence, like the air 

, , I tie air movements siartea vn a room containing a heated stove and an open win" 

near the stove, it constantly rises, dow. The cool air being heavier descends and flows along the floor toward the 
, . , ,1 . stove. Here being heated it expands, becomes lighter and rises flowing along the 

being pressed lix>ward by currents top of the room and out at the top of the uxindow. 

of cooler air which are always flowing in from the colder regions 
north and south. 

2. Trade-Winds.—Thus there are two cold currents of air 
always flowing from the poles toAvard the Equator. Within the 
tropics these become surface-w inds. OAving to the revolution of 


Shovting the air movements created by 
building a fire in the open air. A 
strong current of cold air sets in to¬ 
ward the fire and the heated air rises 
As they proceed toward the poles they flows outward in every direction. 
, ,, , , , , . Extensive fires, like the burning of 

gradually become cooler and heavier; Moscow and Chicago, have been fol- 

they descend, and in the temperate re- 


gions becomes surface-wdnds. In the 
northern hemisphere they come from the 
southwest, and in the southern hemi¬ 
sphere from the northwest. 


North and South Movements of 
Wind Belts. — All of these Avind belts 
are separated by belts of calms. 
When the sun is north of the 
equator, all these belts are propor¬ 
tionally further north, and Avhen the 
sun moves south all the Avind and 
calm belts are proportionally further 
south. 

4. Land and Sea Breezes.—All 

along the sea-shore during the warm season there is a breeze 
from the sea by day, and one from the land by night. 

The land is heated more readily than the sea, and at night it cools more 
rapidly. 

During the day the air above the land becomes hotter than that above 
the water. A current of warm air ascends over 
the land, while currents of cooler air flow in 
from the sea. Thus we have the sea-breeze. 
During the night the air over the land having 
become cooler than that over the sea, the current 
sets toward the sea, and thus Ave have the land- 
breeze. 


5. Monsoons are land and sea breezes on 
a large scale. Instead of alternating with 
day and night, they alternate AAdth summer 
and Avinter, and blow for months at a time. 


The most famous are those of India. The sun’s 
rays beat with intense force upon the desert 
regions of Asia. The hot air rises in a mighty 
current, and there is an inrush of cooler air from 
the Indian Ocean toward the land. 


A chart of the wind and rain belts. Direction of winds is indicated by arrows. When the arrows point in opposite directions 
in the same area they indicate a shifting of the winds at different seasons. Th.~ area and directions of cyclones are shown by a 
nwniter of arrows pointing toward the center and curved in the direction in which the wind whirls. 


6. Offices of tlie Winds.—The Avinds 
are carriers of heat and moisture. They are 
the cause of ocean currents (x. 5), and their 
power drives thousands of ships across the 
oceans. 













































































WINDS AND CLIMATE. 


19 


As they blow over the surface of the sea tliey actiuire the tc'iiiperature 
of tlie water, and hence may become either warm or cohl winds. 
They also gather up vast quantities of vapor wliicli is carried over 
the land to fall in the form of rain or snow. 

Review Topics. —What are winds? Cause? (live an illustration. What 
portion of the earth is the hottest? How does this heat affect the air? Where does 
the cold air come from to take its place ? Tlie trade-winds. What is their 
direction ? The coiuUer-trades. The sea-breeze. The land-lireeze. Monsoons. 
The most famous ? Offices of winds. Change in temperature of winds. 

XII. C'LIMATR. 



Effect of latitude on vegetation. This is in the cold temperate region of Canada. The higher ele¬ 
vations have only a scanty covering of grass and dwarfed trees. Bat in the lower land there are 
tall pines and a fine orchard of apple trees. The grass is thick and lururiant. The fences and 
houses built of lumber show that timber is abundant in this region. 


Equator toward 
the poles the cli¬ 
mate gradually 
grows colder, 
until we reach 
the regions of 
perpetual snow 
and ice. Between 
these regions 
and the Torrid 
Zone lie the Tem¬ 
perate Zones, 
whichhaveacoin- 
paratively mod¬ 
erate climate. 

Besides having 
a higher temper¬ 
ature, the Torrid 
Zone It a s a 
greater rainfall 
than any other 
portion of the 
earth. 



1. Climate is the prevailing condition of the air with reference 
to heat, moisture, winds, cloudiness, and rainfall. 

It depends upon latitude, elevation, distance from the sea, the 
prevailing direction of the winds, and the How of ocean currents. 

2. Effect of Latitude. —The nearer the Equator, the warmer 
the climate, because the Torrid Zone is the region of verti¬ 
cal sun-rays. High tem])erature follows the vertical rays. 


Effect of latitude on vegetation. This is a dense jungle in the tropical 
regions of South .America. Here vegetable growth is so rapid that it is 
difficult to keep the fields cleared and the roads open. 


I 


Over this zone hovers the Equa¬ 
torial Cloiul-Riiiy, which is a 
belt of clouds extending nearly 
round the earth. It consists of 
the vapor brought together by 
the north-east and south-east 
trade-winds. It causes almost 
daily thunder-showers along the 
line (jf the Equator. 

The cloud-ring follows the course 
of the sun north and south iii 
his apparent journey between 
the tropics, and brings the 
season to those places which ai’e 
under it. When it has passed be¬ 
yond the latitude of any place, 
the dry season of that place 
begins. 

3. Effect of Elevation. —The 

temperature of mountains de¬ 



Effect of latiUide on vegetation aiid animal life. 
This is a view in Gretmland. The vegetation 
is scanty. There are no trees and the glaciers 
come all the way d(nrn to the sea level. There 
is no timber to build houses, but the people live 
in tents made of the skins of animals. These 
are their summer hoines. In winter, they live 
in stone huts which are partly under ground 
{see page 92). The dogs seen in the picture 
are the only domestic animals knoirn to these 
cold regions. 


creases about one degree for every 300 feet of ])er])endicular 
ascent. 


entirely melting. 
This line is called 
the Snow-Line. 
The snow-line at 
the Equator (as 
shown in the dia¬ 
gram) is 10,000 
feet above the sea; 
so that there are 
mountains in the 
Torrid Zone on 
the tops of which 
the weather is like 



Illustration.—The heat absorbed by the earth is ))reventpd from escaj)- 
ing by the moist, cloudy layers of air that rest upon the surface. 
The air on the mountains being both drier and clearer, the heat 
received from the sun is quickly lost. For these reasons tempera¬ 
ture decreases regularly with elevation. 

There is in all latitudes a line of elevation above which the 
cold is, at all sea¬ 
sons of the year, 
sufficient to pre¬ 
vent the snow from 


Effect of latitude on vegetation. This is a viev' in the warm temper¬ 
ate regions of Southern France. *4 grove of olive trees is shoirn 
many of which are several centuries old. Notice the large branching 
trunks and the great circumference near the ground. The grass is 
thicker and the general vegetation more luxuriant than in the last 

that of the Arctic ^ ^ 
regions. Their slopes have all varieties of climate. 


The peak of Anti.sana, in South America, although under the Equator, 
rises so high as to reach perpetually frozen region.s. 

In descending these snow-capped mountains in the tropics, we experi¬ 
ence in a single day. in a ride of a few hours, all the changes of climate 
that woidd be felt in travelling from Spitzbergen to Cuba. 

Effect of Mountains on Rainfall.— The cold air above mountain- 
tops condenses the moisture brought by the winds from the sea, into 
rain or snow which falls upon the mountains. Thus the mountains 


feed the rivere. 

The snow and rain that fall upon the Rocky Mountains supply im¬ 
mense volumes of water to the Mississippi. The snow that crowns 
the Himalayas and gives them their name {abode of snotv), with the 
rains that descend upon their slopes, feeds the Indus, the Gauges, 
and the Brahmaputra. The great rivers of South America are fed 
by the melting snows of the Andes. 



















20 


CLIMATE. 



If the continents were 
entirely level, the 
winds would often 
sweep acr<}ss them 
from sea to sea with¬ 
out letting a drop of 
water fall upon the 
land. 

By their slo])es, also, 
mountains deter- 
niine the course of 
rivers, and therefore 
are often called \va- 
ter-slieds, or di- 
vi<U‘s. Hills and 
low ridges also fre¬ 
quently serve as 
water-sheds. 

4. Effect of Sea 

Effect of latitude on the height of the snotr line above the sea lev^el. _ , _ T' 1 

The snow line is much higher in summer than in winter and higher AV 1II Cl S • 1 ll 6 

on the south side of rnountains than on the 'north side. Can you e.v~ 

plain thiaf oceaii is Warmer m 




TROPIC 


EQUATOR 


winter and cooler in summer than the land. Countries, there¬ 
fore, in which the prevailing winds come from the sea have 
warmer winters and cooler summers than might be e.xpected 
from their latitude. 


The island of Great Britain and the province of Labrailor lie 
between the same parallels of latitude. Yet such is the difference 
of climate between them, that while in England the pastures ai’e 
green all the j'eai’, Labrador is so cold as to be almost uninhabitable. 

In the British Isles the winds come from the ocean. They are loaded 
with moisture and waianth fi’om the Gulf Stream. In Labrador 
they come from the land, and are diyand cold. Again, the climates 
of Oregon and British C()lninl)ia are mild, because the prevailing 
winds come from the Pacific Ocean. 



Showing the isotherms of North America. Compare the average temperature along the Atlantic 
Coast with the. temperature in the same latitude, on the Pacific Coast. Trace the isotherm of ,50° 
across the. Continent and explain the changes in direction. 




A mountain above the snow line in tropical South America. Notice the dense growth on the low 
plain along the river and how it diminishes gradually until at the mountain top you see the 
region of perpetual snow. 

Large bodies of fresh water also, such as the Great Lake.s, modifj' 
climate. Southern Michigan owes its comparative mildness to this 
cause. The biting west winds are tempered as they sweep over Lake 
Michigan. 

5, Isotherms (isos, eq\ial; thermos, heat) are lines drawn 
through all jdaces having the same average annual temperature. 

The figures attached to them on the map indicate the average 
temperature during the year. 

The striking bends of these isotherms are due to the combined agency 
of the winds, the great currents of the ocean, and the effect 
of large masses of land and water. The isotherm of Mew 


BOilttAY 4 CO., N.r. 

The general direction of isotherms on the earth's surface. The degrees show the average annual 
temperature. Notice that the lines are very irregular. This is due to elevation, the oeean cur¬ 
rents, and to the prevailing unnds. Notice that, as a rule, the lines bend northward over the oceans 
and southward over the land. Can you e.rplain this in the case of the Atlantic Ocean and of 
North America f 

York, soon after leaving the Atlantic coast, is bent northward by 
the warm Gulf Stream, and comes out on the other side of the 
Atlantic, nearly 900 miles farther north than New York. Again, 
the isotherms of the California coast are bent sharply southward 
by the chilling ocean current near that coast. 

6. Industries and Climates.—The geographical distribution 
of agricultural labor is almost wholly determined by climate. 
There are other industries, however, such as mining and manu¬ 
facturing, that are, to a certain extent, independent of climate. 

Review Topics. —Climate. On what does it depend ? Effect of latitude. 
What is said of the moisture of the torrid regions ? The equatorial cloud-ring. 
What is the effect of elevation ? What is the snow-line ? What is the effect of sea 
winds? Compare Great Britain and Labrador. Why have Oregon and Briti.sh 
Columbia such a mild climate ? What gives Southern Michigan a comparatively 
mild climate ? Isotherms. What is said of the isotherm of New York ? How 
is labor affected by climate ? 
















































































































PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 


21 





XIII. PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

1. The earth is clothed with vegeta¬ 
tion and animated with living creatures: 
these are called its Flora and its Fauna. 

2. The Geographical Range of a 
plant is the extent of the earth’s surface 
within which that plant will thrive in the 
open air. Each kind of plant has its 
special geographical range; for its growth 
depends upon light, 
heat, and moisture. 


Arctic or North Frigid Zone : 

4. Kodiak bear. 


1. Fur seal. 2. Musk ox. 3. Reindeer. 
5. Polar bear. 6 Walrus. 


and cotton, tea, the fig, magnolia, and mul¬ 
berry flourish. Tlie middle belt of the tem¬ 
perate zone is called the grain belt, or the 
cool belt. Wheat and corn are the leading 
gi'ains, and the apple, pear, oak, hickory, 
che.stnut, and walnut trees flourish. The 
belts lying next to tlie frigid zones are called 
the cold belts. Oats and barley are the 
principal grains, and fire, birches, spruces, 
and larches grow. 

Between the belts of plant life the lines are 
n o w here s h a r p1y 
drawn. The plants of 
one belt are found grow¬ 
ing in thebeltson either 
side, though not in such 
perfection. 


Thus the cinchona 
tree, the rubber tree, 
and the pineapple 
grow only in or 
near the Torrid 
Zone, where great 
heat and excessive 
moisture produce 

the most luxuriajlt A'ortA Temperate Zone, North America : 7. American elk. North 7'emperate Zone, Europe and Asia : 16. Chamois. ' ..... „ , 

•,-ofTolQlir.n • w Vi i 1 o Rocky mountain goat. 9. Rocky mountain sheep. 10. Prong- 17. Red deer. 18. Ibex. 19. Osprey. 20. European brown mOSSCS. NonC OI thC 
xegeiaiion, ^ 1 1 hom antelope. 11. Bison. 12. Bald eagle. 13. Cougar, bear. 21. Hedge hog. 22. Wolf. 

hemp, flax, and w>. Rattlesnake. great agricidturalsta- 


5. Frigid Zones. 

—The vegetation of 
these zones consists 
chief! V of lichens and 



Torrid Zone^ South America : 23. Three-toed sloths *2A.Con» 
dor» 25. Spider monkey, 26. Macaw. 27. Anteater. 
28. American tapir. 29. Anacondfl. 30. Jaguar. 31. Bra¬ 
zilian caiman. 


Torrid Zone, Asia: 32. Tiger. 33. Indian rhinoceros. 
34. Active gibbon. 35. Asiatic elephant. 36. Common 
7naqy,e monkey. 37. Camel. 38. Orang-outang. 


Torrid Zone. Africa: 30. Giraffe. 40. African elephant. 
41. Ostrich. 42. Hippopotamus. 43. Klipspringer. 
44. Lion. 





buckwheat find 
their home in the 
Temperate Zone. 

3. Torrid Zone.— 

The richest fruits, the 
most brilliant flowers, 
and the greatest vari¬ 
ety of useful plants 
are found in the Tor¬ 
rid Zone. 


South Temperate Zone, South America: 45. Chinchilla 

46. South American panther. 47. Three-banded armadillo. 
48. Viscacha. 49. Vicuna. .50. Ouanaco. 51. Rhea. 


The following are the most noted: tlie coffee- 
tree, the banana, the pineapple, and the 
palm, the bread-fruit and the mango. 

India rubber and gutta-percha, the cin¬ 
chona and the aloe. 

4. Temperate Zones.—In the Tem- 
])erate Zones we find the grains (wheat, 
corn, rye, oats, and barley), with hemp, 
flax, and many other useful plants. 

, ,1 , .11 1 1 ,1 Antarctic or South Frigid Zone: 01. 

Among the trees are the beech and the guins. 64. Emperor penguin. 
chestnut, the elm, oak, maple, and many fruit trees. 

Those parts of the temperate zones lying next to the torrid are called 
the sub-tropical, or warm belts. Here rice is the leading grain. 


pies, except perhaps 
barley, will grow 
there. 

6. Animals, like 
plants, have their geo¬ 
graphical range. In 
the Torrid Zone we 
find the largest and 

South Temperate Zone, Australia: 52. Wombat. 5Z. Apteryx. 54.^^^®®^ pOtt erf ul land 
Duckbill. 55. Duckbill rolled into a ball, asleep, Koala. 57. • ] 

ChcBropus. 58. Rock kangaroo. 59. Tree kangaroo. 60. Redkangaroo. tvlllllid/loj do LlJt3 d©- 

pliant, lion, and tiger; in the Temperate 
Zone, the domestic animals, as the horse, 
ox, and shee]i; in the Frigid Zone, the 
polar bear, reindeer, and walrus. 

3Ian, unlike the other animals, inhabits 
every region where food is obtainable. 

Review Topics. —What do you mean by the 
Whale. 62. Elephant seal. 63. Pen- l^^ra of a country ? The fauna ? What is the geograph- 
65-66. Seals. 68. Petrels. ical range of a {dant ? U pou what does the growl h of 

plants depend? Tlie jdants of the Torrid Zone. Name some of the trees and plants 
peculiar to the Temperate Zones. What is said of the Frigid Zones? Where are the 
largest animals found ? The most useful animals found ? What are the animals of 
the Frigid Zone ? What is the range of man ? In what zones does he live ? 




















































































22 


MAN : CIVILIZATION AND INDUSTRIES. 


POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 

XIV. MAN. 


The descendants of Europeans have spread over the world, and 
now both Americas are governed by them. 




1. The Human Family, which consists of about 1,600 mil¬ 
lion persons, may be divided, according to the different social 
conditions of men, into four classes, viz.: savage, barbarous, 

civilized, and en¬ 
lightened. 

2. Savages 
have no knowl¬ 
edge of the arts. 

They live by bunt¬ 
ing and fishing, 
and wear the rudest 
kind of clothing. 

3. Barbarous 

_ ___ ^nations have 

The savage stage. An African 
village. 

made little progress 
beyond the savage. 

Some of them live in 
tents, lead a wander¬ 
ing life, and are some- 
cimes called nomads. 

They are called nomads 
(from a word mean¬ 
ing pasturage) be¬ 
cause, when the grass 
in one pl§ce has been 
eaten by their flocks, 

they move to another. Some are acquainted 
with agriculture and the simpler arts. 

4. Some civilized nations, like the Chi¬ 
nese and the Turks, live in towns and cities, 
understand many arts, have a written lan¬ 
guage, and have made considerable advance¬ 
ment in intelligence and morality. Their 
civilization was long stationary, but they 
are now making progress in the arts of 
life. 

5. Enlightened nations, such as Great 
Britain, the United States, Germany, and France, are extensively 
engaged in commerce, and the constant communication between 
different nations causes them to advance rapidljf. Science and 
invention are most highly developed among such nations. 

They employ labor-saAung machinery on a vast scale. They establish 
schools and other institutions of learning, and systems of representative 
government in which the people are allowed to take a part. 

6. Races. — Men are also classified, according to form, feature, 
and color, into five great races: the Caucasian, the Mongolian, 
the Malay, the American Indian, and the Sthiopian. 


Barbarism. A home in central 

Asia. 


Civilisation. M orocco. 


The members of this race are the most enlightened and the most 
enterprising of the races, and are rapidly colonizing, civilizing, and 
enlightening the world. 

8. The Mongolian or Yellow race occupies a large part of 
Asia, and includes the Eskimos of America, and the Lapps, Finns, 
Samoiedes, Magyars, and Turks. Tlie leading nations belonging 
to this race are the Japanese and Chiuese. 

Among the Mongolians are tribes of every grade of civilization, from 
the Eskimos, who are mere savages, to the progressive Japanese. 

9. The Malay or Brown race occupies the Malay Peninsula 
and most of the islands of the Pacific, but is giving way before 
European colonists. 

The color of the Malays is a brownish-yellow. They have dark eyes, and 
straight, black hair. 

10. The American Indians, or Red race, are tall, with 
reddish or copper-colored skins, and straight, black, hair. 

There are remains of ancient Indian civilization in many parts of the 
New World, particularly in Mexico and Peru. 

11. The Ethiopian or Black race is found chiefly in 
Africa, where it is for the most part in a savage state. Its 
descendants in America are civilized. 

Review Topic.s.—What is the population of the world ? How is the 
human family divided ? Savages. Barbarous nations. Civilized. How 
do civilized differ from barbarous? Enlightened nations. The races. Cau¬ 
casians. Mongolians. Malays. American Indians. Ethiopians. 


XV. 


INDUSTRIAL. PURSUITS 
OF MAN. 


1. Man requires food, raiment, 
and shelter. To secure them he re¬ 
sorts to various occupations. 

2. Industrial Pursuits.—The 
leading occupations or industrial pur¬ 
suits are agriculture, fishing, mining, 
manufacturing, commerce and trans¬ 
portation. 




The American Indians and the Malays are thought by some to be remote 
branches of the Mongolian race. This, if true, would reduce the distinct 
racial types to three—the white, the yellow, and the black. 

7. The Caucasian or White race had its origin in the west¬ 
ern part of Asia. All the nations of Europe, except the Lapps, 
Finns, Turks, and the Magyars of Hungary, belong to this race. 


The enlightened stage. A view of New York City from the harbor. 

Agriculture includes tilling the earth to obtain useful plants, 
and grazing, or the raising of flocks and herds. 

Fishing includes the taking of fish from fresh and salt waters. 
Mining is the digging of valuable ores and minerals from the 
earth, and refining them. 













































RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT. 


23 


3Iauufact«riiig- is the working up of all sorts of raw material, 
into more useful and valuable shapes. 

Commerce includes buying and selling, and the exchanging of 
the products of one country, or section, for those of another. 

Transportation includes the carrying of people and products 
from one place or country to another. 

3. Why Industries Vary. —Many industries depend upon 
climate, situation, and wants of the country. 

In Louisiana, for example, the cultivation of the sugar-cane is 
an important branch of industry. 

In Maine the cutting and gathering of ice from the frozen 
lakes and rivers in winter is an important industry. 

There are no frozen lakes and rivers in Louisiana; and no 
cane-fields in Maine, simply because climate forbids. For this 
reason the industries of these sections differ. 

The occurrence of minerals, such as coal, iron, 
lead, salt and petroleum, 
largely affects the indus¬ 
tries of men. 

How Coal ami Iron 
Affect Industries. — 

Countries aboundiug in 
coal and iron are exten¬ 
sively engaged in manu¬ 
facturing. Coal is neces¬ 
sary both for fuel and for 
the manufacture of iron 
and steel machinery. 

Being heavy substances 
to transport, manufac¬ 
turing can be carried 
on more cheaph' where 
these two minerals are 
found together. 

Review Topics. —W h a t 
does man require ? The leading 
industrial pursuits. Agriculture, 

Grazing. Fishing. Mining. 

Manufacturing. Commerce. On what do industries depend ? Compare Louisi¬ 
ana and Maine. How do coal and iron affect industries 'f What other things are 
necessary for carrying on manufacturing ? Can you tell how such things are ob¬ 
tained? 

XML RELIGIONS. 

1. All people have some kind of religion. The principal forms 
of religion are— Christianity, Judaism, Mohammedanism, Bud¬ 
dhism, Brahmanism, and the religion of theGuebers (Gue'bers). 

2 . Christianity. —Christians believe in the Bible as the Word 
of God, and in Jesus Christ as the Son of God. All the nations 
of America, and all those of Europe, except the Turks, profess 
the Christian religion. 

In Asia and Africa there are some Christian communities, and Chris¬ 
tianity is gradually gaining converts in both these continents. Only 
about one-third of the inhabitants of the globe, however, profess the 
Christian religion. 

3. Judaism. —The Jews believe in the Old Testament, but not 
in the New. 

4. Mohammedanism. — The Mohammedans believe that 
“ There is one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet.” 

The Koran was written by Mohammed about 600 years after Christ. 
It is the Bible of his followers. The Turks, Arabs, and Persians, and 
many other inhabitants of Asia and Africa, are Mohammedans. 


5. Buddhism.—Buddha was the founder of this religion. Ilis 
followers, who comprise one quarter of the human family, do not 
believe in a ))ersonal God. Lhey insist on the practice of charity. 

Most of the peo})le of Eastern and South-Eastern Asia are Buddhists. 

6. Brahmanism.—The Brahmans are very numerous. They 
are the leading religious sect of India, from which they drove 
most of the Buddhists by persecution. 

They believe that God is in everything—in the shining light, in the 
moving wind, in tlie falling rain, in the animals, and of coui’se in 
man liimself. Juggernaut is one of their most famous idols. 

7. The Guebers or Parsees are the followers of Zoroaster. 
The sun and fire are with them emblems of the Deity. 

They are the so-called fire-worsliippers of Persia and India. 

Review’ Topics. —Name the prineijial forms of religion. What do Chris¬ 
tians believe? WJiich three continents are inhabited chiefly i)y Christians? Do you 
find many Christian communities in Asia and Africa? What is said of the Jews? 

What is the great doctrine of 
the Mohammedans? What is 
the Koran? Who wrote it? 
Name some Mohammedan na¬ 
tions. What is said of Bud¬ 
dhism? Of Brahmanism? What- 
is Juggernaut? The Guebres. 

XVIII. GOVERNMENTS 

1. Government and 
its End.—All people re¬ 
quire government of some 
sort; otherwise the strong 
would oppress the weak. 

2. Kinds of Govern¬ 
ment.—Civilized govern¬ 
ments of the present day 
may be reduced to two 
kinds—the Republican 
and the Monarchical. 

3. A Republic is a State in which the President, or head of 
the government, is elected by the people to serve for a certain time. 
The law’s are made by representatives also chosen by the people. 

4. A Monarchy is a government in which the ruler inherits 
his office and holds it during life. 

Of monarchies there are two kinds; Limited, in which the laws 
are made by representatives of the people, and Absolute, in which 
the will of the sovereign is the supreme law of the land. 

Nearly all monarchies are now limited, the absolute form existing in but 
a few of'the less civilized nations. 

A monarchy may be a Kingdom, or an Empire. The sovereign is 
usually called King, Queen, or Emperor. 

The Bc.st Government.— The kind of government best suited to any 
country depends upon the people who inhabit it. AVhere the people are 
of a high degree of intelligence, it is thought best to give every one a 
share in the governihent, as in republics and limited monarchies; but 
to give this right to ignorant persons would only result in confusion and 
bad government. The siinplest form of government is that of the tribe^ 
where all are ruled by the will of a single chief. As people increase in 
numbers and intelligence they demand a larger and larger share in the 
government, until at last they take entire control of it. 

Review Topics. _The use of government. Kinds. Republic. Monarchy. 

How many kinds of monarchies? Define them. How are the States of Europe 
governed ? 


gold, silver. 



St. Peter’s, at Rome. The largest church in the world. 
























THE WORLD w 


MAP STUDIES. 

THE HEMISPHERES 

General Questions. 
—By what meridian circle 
have we here divided the 
earth into hemispheres? 
What circle divides the 
earth into a northern and a 
southern hemisphere ? 
; Which hemisphere contains 
most land, the eastern 
or the western? Which 
hemisphere contains the 
most water, the northern or 
southern? 

Continents.—In which 
zone do you find the great¬ 
est proportion of land? 
What continents do you find 
in the western hemisphere? 
In the eastern? What con¬ 
tinent lies partly in both? 
What continents lie wholly 
north of the Equator? 
Which are divided by the 
Equator? By the Tropic of 
Cancer? Tropic of Capri¬ 
corn? The Arctic Circle? 
Through what part of Eu¬ 
rope does this circle pass? 
' How are' North and South 
America united? Asia and 
.4frica? What sea and 
strait separate Africa and 
Europe? In w^hat direction 
does NoTth America lie 
from Europe? ' From Af¬ 
rica? In what direction is 
Australia from Asia? From 
South America? 





Torit 




■TMq^c ofIcanoch. 


.8AN LUCAS 




Acapulco 

CEf 


UrstiAii (5. 


_ion__ 

j Galapagos Is. 


Greenwich 


West 


■bongituie 


»ADOf 


C. BLANCO 


Marquesas 


foQue 


Ellice|U- 


Santa Crui 




Archipefage 


-jTHOfflO OF oapbicohn 


fparaiso. 


>Outh 


.^arctic 


SOUTH 


POLE 


Islands. —In which 
ocean are most of the 
islands of the w’orld? 

What important group off 
the western shores of 
Europe? What islands off 
the coast of Asia form a great empire? What large islands 
between Asia and Australia? Which is the largest island 
in the world ? Ans. Greenland. What large island east of 
Africa? What group southeast of the United States? 
What group incloses Bering Sea? Where is the New 
Zealand group? Ceylon? What island south of Australia? 
North? 


XVIII. THE HEMISPHERES. 

1 . If we divide the earth into hemispheres, as above, we have what are called 
the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 

2. The Western Hemisphere contains North and South America, and 
is called the New World. 


Capes.—l\Tiat is the most northerly cape of Europe? 
The most southerly of South America? The most southerly 
capes of Africa? The most easterly? The most southerly 
of India? 

Mountains.—Where are the Rocky Mountains? The 
Andes? The Alps? The Himalayas? The Atlas? In 
what direction do the mountain ranges of the western 
hemisphere extend? Those of the eastern? 

Deserts.—WTiat are the two great deserts of the world? 
In which continents are they? 


3. The ^Eastern Hemisphere contains Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. 
Europe, Asia, and Africa are called the Old World, because our ancestors lived there 

thousands of years before the New World was found by Columbus. The Eastern 
Hemisphere has nearly twice as much land as the Western. 

4. Asia and Africa are connected by the Istlimus of Suez, and North 
America and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. 

Both of these isthmuses are famous because they join large continents together, and 
also because they furni.sh important commercial routes between great oceans 
and .seas. 


24 



















































fngnat /* 


jalcutte 




3onfl-): .y 
ARA BIj 2V 
l(lbtlJitaTi3e\ C 

Lq^UAR DAFi M_ 


1 ^ BAY 
OT 1 

F BENQA'Li 
[Madra.') • 


31anua' 


A^SSiNlA 


Caro)i< 


EQUATOR* 


)a^tude East 


' Zanzibar 


iSeyohelles 


ReuziJ 


TROPIC or 


capricorn 


‘'"sterdai 




Kerg te: 


Wa-RCTJO- 
^ Kemp 


South 


JOMpHIN^ 

I^ScEYLON 

0 9 

from 1 

rreenwich 


HIAP STUDIES. 

THE HEMISPHERES. 

Oceans.—Which is the 
largest ocean? How much 
of the Western Hemisphere 
does it cover? 77;c Pacific 
is remarkable for the number 
of islands contained in it, 
and for the belt of volcanoes 
that encircles it. Between 
what continents is the At¬ 
lantic? The Atlantic is the 
only ocean which is widely 
open 011 the north. More¬ 
over, it reaches, like a long 
valley, from pole to pole, and 
forms the only ready chan¬ 
nel for* the exchange of the 
polar and equatorial waters. 
Which ocean is west of 
North and South America? 
Which is east? Which is 
north of North America? 
Which is west of Europe? 
South, of Asia? The In¬ 
dian. Ocean is remarkable 
for the violent hurricanes 
which sweep over it. What 
ocean east of Asia? North? 
East of Africa? West? 
Soutli? Where is the Ant¬ 
arctic Ocean? 

Seas, B a s , and 
Gulfs.—Where is the Sea 
of Japan? The China Sea? 
Bay of Bengal? Arabian 
Sea? Red Sea? Mediter¬ 
ranean? Guh of (iiiinea? 
Caribbean Sea? Gulf of 
Me.vico? Bering Sea? 
Hudson Bay? In which 
oceans do we find Sargasso 
seas? These are immense 
areas of the ocean covered 
with seaweed. The ocean 
currents move about them in 
whirls. 


5. Th.e earth’s surface is also divided by the Equator into Northern and 
Sontliern Hemisiilieres. 

6. Europe, Asia, and North America lie in the Northern Ileinisithere, 
and are chieliy in tlie Temperate Zone. 

Their coast lines are broken by inland seas, bays, and gulfs, which greatly facilitate 
commerce. The Northern Hemisjihere is the seat of knowledge, civilization, and 
power. It is the commercial liemispliere. 

7. The southern continents are South America, Africa, and Australia. 
They lie principally in the Torrid Zone. 

Compared with the other continents, they are marked by lack of coast indentation, and 
hence do not afford the same facilities for commerce. 

Review Topics.—Hemispheres. What continents are in the Western Hemisphere ? What 
does the Eastern Hemisphere contain ? What is meant hy the Old World ? \\ hich hemisphere 
contains the most land ? How are Asia and Africa connected ? North and Sonth Ameiica ? \\ hat 
makes these isthmuses famous ? What continents does the Northern Hemisphere contain ? In 
what zones are they ? What is said of their coast lines ? Which is the commercial hemisphere ? 
Name the southern continents. In what zones are they ? 


Utikes ami Rlvei's.—What great lakes in Africa? 
Western Asia? Ans. Caspian and Aral seas. Where are 
the great lakes of the Western Hemisphere? Where is 
the Amazon? Mississippi? In what directions do these 
flow? Where is the Nile? Yenisei? Yangtze? 

Voyages.—On what oceans would you sail in going 
from America, in a southeastwardly course, to Australia, 
thence to California? What oceans would you sail on in 
a voyage from New York to California, by way of Cape 
Horn? From New York to China, by way of the Cape 
of Good Hope? From Cape Horn to the Cape of Good 
Hope? 

Uatlturte and Uongltnde.—Where would a ship be 
if she had no latitude and no longitude? Suppose a .ship 
in latitude 20° north, longitude 160° west, what islands is 
she near? Suppose a ship in longitude 160° east, latitude 
30° south, and sailing westward, what coast is she lu'armg? 
2.5 






































NORTH AMERICA 


XIX. PHYSICAi:, FEATURES. 

1. North America stretches from the Arctic regions to the 
Torrid Zone, and embraces a great range of latitude, diversity 
of climate, and variety of vegetable productions. 

2. Surface.—The continent is divided into three great sec¬ 
tions: I. The Atlantic Plain and Appalachian Hi^^hland ; II. 
The Great Central Plain; III. The Pacific Hig-liland and Slope, 

3. The Atlantic Plain is the country lying between the ocean 
and the Appalachian Mountains. 




Atlantic Plain near Wilmington, N. C. 

Spanish moss. 


showing live oaks with 


Appalachian Highland—The Blue Ridge at 
Sapphire, N. C. 

MAP STUDIES.—What oceans 
nearly surround North America? 

What ocean current on tlie west¬ 
ern coast ? Tlie southeastern coast ? 

What is its direction? What current 
passes toward Newfoundland from 
the Arctic regions? What bay in¬ 
dents the northern part of the con¬ 
tinent? What peninsula east of it? 

What gulf south of Labrador? What 
great gulf indents the southeasteim 
coast? What iieninsulas nearly en¬ 
close it? What channels lead to it? Great Central Plain in North Dakota. 

What is the general direction of the Atlantic coast? Of the Pacific? 
What large peninsula forms the northwestern extremity of the conti¬ 
nent? What strait separates it from Asia? What gulf indents the west¬ 
ern coast? What peninsula west of this gulf? What land east of Baffin 
Bay? Island east of Greenland? What islands between North and South 
America? Name the four largest. In what zone do they lie? What sea 
south of them? What island east of the Gulf of St. Lawrence? What 
isthmus unites North and South America? 

Surface.—What does each color on the map show? Is most of the 
continent high or low? What is the most elevated portion? Where does 
the chief lowland lie? What elevation of land divides the Central Plain? 
Name its southern portion. What ocean on the north? Gulf on the 
south? What highlands near the eastern coast? Their general direction? 
What region between the Appalachian Highland and the sea? What 
highland region in the west? What mountain system? What is its dii’ec- 
tion and extent? What mountains near the Pacific coast? 

Rivers and Lakes.—What great river system drains the southern 
part of the Central Plain? What rivers drain the northern part? Into 
what do these rivers flow? What lakes are drained by the St. Law¬ 
rence? In what dii’ection does this river flow? In what direction do the 
rivers of the Atlantic Plain flow? Name the chief rivers of the Pacific 
Slope. 

Vegetation and Animals.—Trace the northern limit of trees. What 
plants grow north of this limit? How far north do barley, oats, and flax 



4. The Ap¬ 
palachian 
Highland com¬ 
prises the ranges 
k n o \\ n as the 
Appalachian 
Mountains. 

These extend 
from the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence 
nearly to the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

5. The Great 

Central Plain reaches from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of 
Mexico. It lies between the two Highland regions. 

Near the head waters of the Mississippi this plain is crossed by a low 
ridge, called the Laurentian Highland, which divides it into two 
great slopes. One inclines to the north, and sends its waters into the 
Arctic Ocean, the other to the south, draining the Valley of the Mis¬ 
sissippi. From Minnesota the Laurentian Highland may be traced 
northward of the Great Lakes toward the Atlantic. The highest 
point is reached in Minjiesota, where the source of the Mississippi is 

1,600 feet above the sea-level. The 
Laurentian Highland is also called 
The Height-of-Land. 

6. The Pacific Highland in¬ 
cludes the Rocky Mountains and 
the elevated Plateau lying be¬ 
tween these mountains on the 
one side, and the Sierra Nevada 
and Cascade Ranges on the other. 
It extends from the Isthmus of 
Panama to the Arctic Ocean. 



The Pacific Highland—Mt. Sultan, a peak of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 


grow in the western part of the continent? In the central? In the eastern? 
How many degrees farther north do they grow on the Pacific than on the 
Atlantic side? Judging from this, which side of the continent has the 
milder climate? Account for the difference. Where does the line pass, 
south of which there is seldom any snow? Where do we find the whale? 
The walrus? The seal and sea-otter? The eider-duck? The cod, mackerel, 
and herring? Sponges, coral, green turtle? On what part of the<contiuent 
are fur-bearing animals found? The grizzly bear? The elk? 


2b 





















C.MOfffj/s 


C.ALEXANOER 


Hcrnid f, 


• ,BARRq^ 




[CKBURN 

tAnd 


Walrua 


^i^Tnlet 


Ji. 


insd^ 


Conception! 


-^ikoiih 

^*eait 




‘'?7-0 RJCO . 


Coltmft ^opi 


NORTH 

AMERICA 

PHYSICAL MAP 


1.0RACIA8 
K 0\08 


3o£fQ®'' 

Cacao, 


OriJ^ 


larajV® 


Low Plateau Buff 
High Plateau Baric Buff 


Green 

Bark Green 


Plains 
Low land 


■West 


■Wasliington 


Longitude 









































































































28 


NOKTH AMERICA; GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 



The Pacific Slope from Berkeley, showing the City of San Francisco and the Golden Gate. 


Between this Highland and the Pacific Ocean lies the Pacific 


land. The Great Central Plain. By what is it divided? What is said of the two 
slopes? Describe the Laurentian Highland. The Pacific Highland. The Pacific 
Slope. What is said of the rivers and lakes of North America? Of the Missis- 
sippi and its branches? The St. Lawrence? The rivers of the Appalachian Moun¬ 
tains? Pacific Plateau? 

XX. CLIMATE, VEGETATIOX, AXD IXIIABITAXTS. 

1. Climate and Vegetation.—The climate of North America 
is varied. The greater part of the continent is in the Temperate 
Zone. This portion is well watered, and contains extensive for 
ests, grassy plains, and abundant vegetation. 

The extreme uortlierii part is cold and almost uninhabitable. Ii 
is marked by a dwarfed and scanty vegetation, which, on the Arctic 
shores, consists of nothing but mosses and lichens. 


Slope. 

7. Rivers and Liakes.—North America is abundantly wa¬ 
tered. Its rivers and lakes are among 
the largest in the world. A very 
large portion of all the fresh water 
on the globe is contained in its lakes. 

The 3lis.si.ssippi and its numerous 
tributaries traverse the southern slope 
of the Great Central Plain. The Mis¬ 
souri and the Lower Mississippi to¬ 
gether form one of the longest water¬ 
courses in the world. Its length is 
more than 4,000 miles. 

The St. Lawrence drains the Great 
Lakes and flows into the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence. The rivers of the eastern 
slope of the Appalachian Mountains 
all enter the Atlantic Ocean or the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

The rivers of the Pacific Highland are 
the Yukon, flowing into Bering Sea 
and navigable for 1,500 miles, tfif 
Columbia and the Colorado enter¬ 
ing the Pacific, and the Rio Grande, 
which flows into the Gulf of Mexico. 

The Mackenzie, the Sa.skatcliewan, 
and the Nelson drain the northern 
portion of the Central Plain and flow 
into the Arctic Ocean or into Hudson 
Bay. 

Review Topics.—Extent of North America, north and south. What 
gives this continent its great diversity of climate and variety of production? 
How is the surface divided? Describe the Atlantic Plain. The Appalachian High- 


The southern part lies near or in the Torrid Zone. It has a 
tropical climate, an abundant rainfall, and luxuriant vegetation. 

Cotton, coffee, sugar cane, and to¬ 
bacco are here extensivel}^ cultivated, 
and the banana, pineapple, orange 
and lemon are found in perfection 

2. Advantages of Position.— 

North America lies between the 
two great oceans; it has the Atlan 
tic on the east and the Pacific on 
the west. Its harbor’s on the Pacific 
are midway beween the western 
shores of Europe and the eastern, 
shores of Asia. , 

With its double sea front, numerous 
harbors, central position, narrow 
isthmus, with quick transit across it 
North America is well situated foi/ 
trade with both Eui'ope and Asia. 

3. Discovery.—America was dis¬ 
covered by Christopher Columbus in 
1492. It was named America after 
Americus Vespucius, a Florentine 
and a contemporary of Columbus. 

The first land discovered was Wat- 
ling Island, one of the small islands 
of the West Indies. Other islands 
of the group were discovered by 
Columbus, and he left some of his men on the island of Haiti. 
Finally, on his third voyage, he discovered the continent itself. 
Columbus thought that these islands were the East Indies, but when 



The -waiers of the Great Jyikes pass from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario through the Niag¬ 
ara Riverf and descend 167 feet at one leap, forming the grandest cataract in the world. 


3IAP STUDIES.—What country occupies the northern part of 
North America? What country northeast of British America? South? 
What country south of the United States? Southeast of Mexico? 

Danish America (belongs to Denmark).—Of what does Danish 
America consist? Name the capital of Iceland. What towns lie within 
the Arctic Circle? W^here is Cape North ? Cape Farewell? 

British America.—What is the principal division of Bi’itish America? 
What island and province form the other division? What mountain range 
in the western part? What lakes are drained by the Mackenzie River? The 
Nelson? What lakes on tlie southern border of the Dominion of Canada? 
Where is Cape Race? Cape Sable? Bay of Fundy? Grand Bank? Two 
islands on the Pacific coast? Where is the Magnetic Pole? At this pole 
the magnetic needle points towards the center of the earth. What is the 
capital of the Dominion? What Cities on the St. Lawrence? Where is 
Halifax? 


United States.—Two capes on the east? What mountains near the 
west coast? Where are the Appalachian Mts. ? W’^hat three bays on the 
eastern coast? Where is Boston? New York? Philadelphia? Washington? 
What city on the Ohio? On Lake Michigan? What city near the mouth 
of the Missouri? Near the mouth of the Mississippi? On the Pacific 
coast ? 

Mexico.—What river between Mexico and the United States? Whai 
gulf and peninsula on the Pacific coast? What is the principal mountain 
range? Name one of its volcanoes. What is the capital? What city on 
the Bay of Campeche? 

Central America.—What sea on the east? What ocean on the west? 
What lake in the southern part ? What are the chief cities ? 

West Indies.—Name the four largest islands of this group. Where 
is Havana ? Port-au-Prince ? Santo Domingo ? Kingston ? San Juan 7 
Where are the Bahama Islands ? The Bermudas ? 



















C.M0«»,5 


C.alexanoe^ 




Mt.MoKlnJ^ev. ^^ 


yy^fs^- 


iCKBORN 

land 


MKOW**' 


Frtct'ory jp 


innipeffO 


Alban: 


^•^>'''YhrX-Hay 

*^de(phia 

'^uivurt Jiay 




QV^l,ouiftv 


Kans^i* 

I cviy 


>aiiish 




^fobClej 


rleans 


'*^Vestoo 


JL I ^‘Nassau 
OAPESABliy^ A* 

jCey'West,.'' 


*V?BANT0 I 
‘V» oOMtNGO 


SS^fflEi 


Campeche 


NORTH 

AMERICA 

POLITICAL MAP 


|tC UCIG^^P^ 


^•f every IS degrees OT fongitude th* 
difference of time is one hour. 


■Washington 


West 


from 


Longitude 


d-U 


Ml ^ S'SS . . «-12 Mt 

TIME A M. when Tl is Noon on the Meridian of Greeriwich.and 6.52 A.M. at Washington. 


7-32 
























































































































30 


THE UNITED STATES: PHYSICAL FEATURES. 


it was found that they were not, they were called the West Indies. 

Spanish colonies were promptly established in the New World. Cuba 
and the other Spanish-American republics grew out of these. 

4. Inhabitants.—The continent is at present occupied chiefly 
by Caucasians of various nationalities, and by the descendants of 
African Negroes. 

Both North and South America, with their adjacent islands, were in¬ 
habited at the time of their discovery by Indians, of whom only the 
Peruvians and the Aztecs of Mexico were civilized. 

No horses, cows, or other domestic animals were known to the natives, 
except the hairless dog of Cuba and the llama of Peru. 

The Indians roamed over the country from one hunting ground to 
another, living in wigwams. They rarely cultivated the soil. Some 
of their tribes are now partially civilized. 

The Arctic portions of the continent are still in possession of the na¬ 
tive Pskimos, who live in snow huts, clothe themselves in the skins 


of animals, and feed upon fish and the flesh of the bear, seal, and 
walrus. 

6. Political Divisions.—Greenland and Iceland belong to 
Denmark ; The Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland (including 
Labrador), and Britisli Honduras belong to Great Britain; The 
United States (including Alaska, Porto Rico, and the Canal Zone), 
Mexico, the Central American States, Cuba, Dominican Republic, 
and Haiti are republics; other islands of the West Indies, 
the Bahamas, and the Bermudas, belong to European nations. 

Review Topics.—In what zone is a large part of North America? Describe 
the vegetation of the extreme northern portion. Of the southern portion. Prod¬ 
ucts of each. How is North America located? Commercial importance. When 
and by whom was America discovered? W'hy so called? Account for the name 
West Indies. Who are the present inhabitants of the continent? Describe the 
Indians. Eskimos. Name the political divisions of North America. 


THE UNITED STATES. 


XXI. RANK AND PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

1. Position and Rank.—The United States occupies the cen¬ 
tral and most fertile part of North America. It ranks as one of 
the greatest powers of the world, 
and stands first in agriculture, 
manufactures, and wealth. 

2. Extent. —The country 
extends from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific Ocean, and from the 
Great Lakes on the north to the 
Gulf of Mexico on the south. 

The distance from ocean to 
ocean, in a direct line across 
the country, is 2,100 miles in 
the narrowest, and 2,800 in the view of the white mis.. 
broadest part, and its greatest ncu^ Range. The high 
breadth from north 
nearly 1,700 miles. 

The area of the United States, including Alaska 
and the outlying islands, is 3,805,000 square 
miles. 

3. Surface.—The surface of the United 
States consists of three great natural divi¬ 
sions: I. The Atlantic Plain and Appalachian 
Highland. 11. The Valley of the Mississippi. 

III. The Pacific Highland and Slope, 

THE 



5. The Appalachian Highland.—Beyond this hill country 
are the mountain ranges forming the Appalachian system. They 
lie nearly parallel to one another, and extend in a northeast and 
southwest direction, from the St. Lawrence nearly to the Gulf 

of Mexico. 

The most prominent of these 
ranges are the White Moun¬ 
tains, the Green Mountains, the 
Adirondacks, the Blue Ridge, 
and the Allegheny Mountains. 

Here and there are elevations ol 
6,000 feet, but the average height 
is not more than 2,000 or 3,000 
feet. With few 
Appalachians are 


„ ^IQfl 

peak in the center is MU 
to south is Washington. The large 
building is a summer 
hotel. 



exceptions the 
forest-clad to 
their summits. 


View ol the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania. Notice that the tops of the mountains are on Ih 

the same line which shows the level of an old plateau through which streams have cxU valleys^ ae 
shown in the picture. 


6. The Cli¬ 
mate of this 
division varies 
with the lati¬ 
tude. In the 
northern por¬ 
tion there are 
long and se¬ 
vere winters; 
the south- 


ATLANTIC PLAIN AND APPALACHIAN 
HIGHLAND. 

4. The Atlantic Plain lies between the sea and the Appala¬ 
chian Mountains. 

It consists of a belt of lowland called the Coastal Plain, and an 
upland region called the Piedmont. 

The Coastal Plain is narrow at the north, but widens toward the 
south, where it is from 200 to 300 miles in width. 

West of this low plain lies the Piedmont region, or hill country, which 
gradually increasesin elevation until we reach the footof themou ntains. 


are blooming 


ern, flowers 
The entire region has a 


all the year round, 
moderate but sufficient rainfall. 

7. The Products of the Atlantic and Gulf Plains correspond 
with the climate. When these sections were first settled by 
white men, they were covered with forests. 

The northern section produces oats, corn, hay, and potatoes. 

In the central portion the yield of hardy fruits and grains is 
abundant. 

In the southern section we find cotton and rice, indicating a semi- 
tropical climate, w-hile in large areas of Florida the orange and 
lemon, banana, and guava flourisb. 
























THE UNITED STATES: PHYSICAL FEATURES: 


8. The Natural Advantages of the Atlantic Plain and Ap¬ 
palachian Highland are very great. 

The deposits of coal, iron, and petroleum are enormous. 

Numerous rivers rise in the highlands, furnishing water-power for the 
manufacturer and highways for commerce in the Coastal Plain. 

The coast line is much indented, forming excellent harbors. 


9. Valley of the Mississippi. —Crossing the wooded heights 
of the Appalachian ranges, we enter a vast shallow basin called 
the Talley of the Mississippi. It extends from the Appalachians 
to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
Height of Land. It occupies nearly one-half the area of the 
United States. 

If we look at the map Ave shall see that the Mississippi receives 
the Avaters of large rivers, such as the Ohio and the Tennessee 
on the east, and the Missouri, the Red, and the Arkansas on 
the west. This clearly sIioavs that the 
lands on either side of the river form 
the sloping sides of a great A^alley. 

A large portion of the upper Missis¬ 
sippi A^alley consists of prairies. 

Some of them are rolling, others as 
level as the sea. Most of them are 
treeless. These prairies were once 
covered by a great sliallow sea; 
the fine soil was washed down from 
the mountains and deposited as 
sediment on the sea-bottom. A sIoav 
uplift of the continent afterward 
left this region diy land. 

Before the prairies were cultivated they wei’e covered in springtime 
and summer with grass and flowers. Boundless fields of wheat and 
corn now occupy large portions of them. 

Westward of the Missouri and the 98th meridian are the Great 
Plains, a plateau extending to the Rocky Mountains. Their soil is 
covered, when in a natural condition, with nutritious grasses on 
which many thousand sheep and cattle feed. These plains are the 
great grazing region of the United States. 

10. Climate. —The northern section has a temperate climate, 
with hot summers and cold Avinters. The climate of the south¬ 
ern portion is semi-tropical. 

The soil is of great depth and fertilit}^ It is composed for 
the most part of line sediment left by the Avaters that once over¬ 
flowed the valley; but in the northern half there is much coarser 
material left by the glacier that once overspread the northern 
part of the continent. 


The climate of the Great Plains is I’emarkably dry. Agriculture 
depetids, in many areas, upon irrigation; that is, distributing water 
over the fields by means of channels leading from reservoirs. 

11. The Products of the Mississippi Valley are similar to those 
of the Atlantic Slope in corresponding latitudes. The leading 
products are cotton, sugar, hay, grain, tobacco, lumber, and 

minerals. The Mississippi Valley is 
the chief agricultural region of the 
country. 

12. The Natural Advantages 

of this region are unsurpassed. 

Its soil is unrivalled in depth and fer¬ 
tility. 

Its grazing lauds are among the most 
extensive in the world. 

It contains some of the most valuable 
timber lauds in the country. 

The Great Lakes are on the northern 
borders of this region. They are really 
inland fresh-water seas. On their 
of vessels carry on an active internal 

The Mississippi and its tributaries drain the entire valley, and 
furnish water-routes whereby the products of one portion of this 
region may readily be transported to another. The lumber and 
wheat of Minnesota and Wisconsin are carried upon the Mississippi 
down to New Orleans, a distance of more than 2,000 miles; while 
the sugar, rice, etc., of the Gulf States may be transported upon the 
same waters to the States far away to the north. 

THE PACIFIC HIGHLAND AND SLOPE. 

13. The Pacific Highland embraces the Rocky Mountains 


and the Sierra Neva<la and Cascade ranges, Avitli the great ele¬ 
vated plateau lying between them. 

The Rocky Mountains, Avith their snow-capped peaks, border 
the plateau on the east. They form the loftiest AA'ater-shed in the 
United States. Here are found the head Avaters of the longest 
rivers that floAv eastAvard into the Mississippi, and AvestAA'ard into 
the Pacific. 

The Plateau Regitui has an aA^erage eleA^ation of 5,000 feet 
aboA^e the sea leAml, and is from 300 to 800 miles in breadth. 

It is traversed by numerous ridges and mountain chains and is 
naturally divided into three regions, viz., the Plain of the Co¬ 
lumbia on the north, the Plateau of the Colorado on the south, 
and between these the Great Rasin, in which is the Great Salt 
Lake. 

The Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges form the western 



The Miasissippi River and its flood-plain at Wmona, Minn., looking up the river. Notice the drawbridge which is drawn to permit 
steamboats to pass and the jetty on the left-hand aide to deepen the channel and prevent the banks from being washed away. Above notice the 
several branches, all of which are a part of the river. The opposite shore is Wisconsin. 

waters many thousands 


THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 


commerce. 



On the Great Plains. Scene on a Texas ranch. The cowboys have just roped a steer in order that they may examine 
the brand, or mark. Each ranch owner has his own brand. 













'%.ATTE^j 






\fidlumbii 


Jello'Z 


jfjF*ro~"p- 

iyeUatiBlone 
"J 7vi Z?jf 


i^eak 


*tOKTH 

JoO'-*' 


»»» FVancUco 


^ontti 


IwOKlnjX^ 

Mt^yndaiK 


S?*NISH 


®®^CCPTiON1 


MAP STUDIES 


PHYSICAL UmTED STATES. 


Surface. —Which half of the United States 
contains the greater amount of highland ? What 
highland traverses the eastern half ? What region 
between this highland and the ocean ? Wliat 
great valley between the eastern and western high¬ 
lands ? Where is the “prairie” region? What 
plains form part of the western slope of the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley ? What are the lowlands bordering 
the Gulf of Mexico called ? How far north do 
these extend ? Where are the Rocky Mountains ? 
What three ranges near the Pacific ? Where is 
the Great Basin ? What great salt lake in this 
region? It is salt because it has no outlet. The 
rvater of all lakes and rivers contains some salt. 
When a lake has no outlet, its vaters escape 
by evaporation only. The salt is left behind, 
and more and more is continually added by 
the inflowing rivers. Between what mountain 
ranges is the most extensive lowland on the Pa¬ 
cific Slope ? Of what State does this lowland form 
part ? 

Rivers aud Lakes. —Name the most impor¬ 
tant river of the United States. What is its chief 
tributary ? Steamers ascend the Mississippi to 
St. Paul, 2,200 miles from its mouth. The Mis¬ 
souri is navigable nearly to the Great Falls," 
about 4,000 miles from the mouth of the Missis¬ 
sippi. This is a greater distance than from New 
York to Liverpool. What is the chief eastern 
tributary of the Mississippi ? To what States does 
it afford water communication ? The rivers of 
the Atlantic slope are na vigable generally through 
the dark-green or lowland belt. Where is the 
Yellowstone river ? The Platte ? Arkansas ? Red ? 
Rio Grande ? What River enters the Gulf of Cali¬ 
fornia ? It is famed for the canons through which 
it flows. They are gorges through the rock, some 
of which are 6,000 feet deep. Name the two most 
important rivers of California. What river breaks 
through the Cascade Range and enters the Pacific 
Ocean ? Name the Great Lakes. Which is the 
largest ? On the map find a State nearly equal to 
it in area. Which is the smallest of the lakes? 
On the map find a State that is similar in size 
to Ontario. Which of the Great Lakes is wholly 
within the United States ? To what country do 
the others partly belong ? 

Climate. —Between what parallels of latitude 
does the United States lie ? What are the prevail¬ 
ing winds ? In what part of the country are the 
west winds bearers of rain ? Why ? From what 
directions do the winds come that bring rain on 
the Atlantic coast ? Explain this. The ivinds 
that blow from the Gulf of Mexico bring moisture 
to the Gulf Slope. Hurricanes from the Gulf 
often extend as far north as New England. 

In what zone does the United States lie ? The 
Tropic of Cancer is in lat. 23^° N. How far dis¬ 
tant from the tropical regions is the southern 
point of Florida ? Land winds in winter being 
cold, and sea winds warm, which miist have the 








TWITED STATES 

PHYSICAL MAP 


SCALE OF MILES 


Tlains 
Low land 


200 

Green 

Lark green 


Low Plateau 
High Plateau 


Luff 

Lark tuff 


PACIFIC SrOPE 

sierra n eV 


PROFIUES OF THE UNITED STATES above the SeaLe 


milder winter weather, the northeastern corner of the United States or the 
northwestern? 

Minerals.—What part of the country is the great mineral region? 
What are the principal minerals found here? What are the leading min¬ 
eral products of the Atlantic Highlands? Name those found on the 


shores of Lake Superior. In which half of the United States is coal most 
abundant? In what parts of the country is salt obtained? In what parts 
of the Mississippi Valley do you find iron ore? Coal? Lead? Petroleum? 
Zinc? Where are phosphates obtained? 

Vegetatlon.- 


-Name the grains raised in the Mississippi Valley. In 













































Hnnipeg 




XAKE OF 
pras wooME 


Ottys^ 

ssi«9 ‘ 


n<EW££NAW 

PT. 




kSANOY HOOK, 


ItAPi «*'' , 
buiare 
'*'£ni.opem 


yEOVXI 


.ymmvfi 


fj^ouths of 






:GHENY 

:^TS. 


what part of the valley is the great “ wheat belt "? The “ com belt ”? 
The “ hemp and tobacco region ”? What portion of the country does the 
“ cotton belt ” include? The •' sugar and rice region ” ? In what portion 
of the lowland is the orange raised? What are the agricultural products 
of the valleys of the Pacific Slope? What is the most important? 


Which half of the United States most abounds in forests? Where are 
the great “ forest regions ” found? Where is the “ forest region ” of the 
Pacific Slope? From what part of the Atlantic Slope do we get pitch, 
rosin, tar, and turpentine? Where does the “ live oak ” grow? In which 
part of the country is the great “ grazing region ”? 


Longitude 


Greenwich 


"West 


from 


Sound* 


KANSAS 
’TEXAS 

[TWEEI-f THE PACIFIC OCEAIV AND THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. Note, The Scale of Height is 40 times the Scale of length. 






























































34 


THE UNITED STATES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION, STATES, POPULATION. 


boundary of the Plateau. They are really one chain, following 
the coast at a distance of from 100 to 150 miles. 

Many of the peaks of the Kocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada 
rise to the height of over 14,000 feet. 

I 

14. Climate. — The climate of the Pacific Highland is marked 
by extreme dryness. It has but little rain, except on the moun¬ 
tains, which are in the path of the westerly winds. 

heated and rapidly 
cooled. Often the 
temperature at 
noon will be 70° 
or 80°, and at sun¬ 
rise below freez¬ 
ing-point. 

15. Resources. 
—This is one of 
the great regions 
of the world for 
the production of 
the precious metals. In gold it ranks next to South Africa; in 
silver it is second only to Mexico. 

The only natural vegetation of parts of the Plateau Region are the 
sage brush in the north, and the cactus in the south. 

16. The Pacific Slope. — Leaving the Plateau Region and 
crossing the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges, we find ourselves 
upon the Pacific 
Slope, which ex¬ 
tends from the 
summits of these 
mountains to the 
Pacific Ocean. 

It includes the 
low valleys of 
California, 

Oregon, and 
Washington, 
and the Cas¬ 
cade Mountains and the Coast Range that borders the Pacific. 

17 . The Climate of the Pacific Slope, owing to the prevailing 
winds from the sea, is much milder than that of corresponding 
latitudes on the Atlantic Slope. The summers are cooler, and 
the winters so mild that many visitors spend the winter there. 

The rains occur during the winter, which is known as the rainy 
season; the summer is called the dry season. 

18. The Products and Resources of the Pacific Slope are 
extraordinary. 

The mines of gold and quicksilver, and the petroleum wells are 
of great value. Vegetables and fruit attain a size that is almost 
incredible; and the yield of wheat is sometimes 60 bushels to the 
acre. Magnificent forests cover the mountain slopes. Trees are 
found measuring 40 feet in diameter. Facing the Asiatic continent, 
moreover, the Pacific Slope enjoys unrivalled advantages for cany- 
ing on commerce with the populous nations of China and Japan. 

Review Topics. —Location and rank of the United States. What is the 
greatest distance from east to west? The least? How is the surface divided? 
Describe each natural division—surface, climate, products. What are the natural 
advantages of the Atlantic Plain? Describe the Mississippi Valley; extent; prairies; 
plains. Climate of the northern portion; southern. The plains. The products. 


How can Minnesota and the Gulf States exchange products? Describe the Pacific 
Highland. The Rocky Mountains. The Plateau region. Width. How divided 
by mountains? The Sierra Nevadas. Height of peaks. The climate. The mineral 
wealth. The natural products. Describe the Pacific Slope. Compare its climate 
with that of the Atlantic Slope. Describe the summers and winters. The mines 
Fruits and vegetables. Wheat. Forests. Commercial advantages. 

XXII. STATES.—POPUIiATIOX. 

1. The United States consists of forty-eight states, one dis¬ 
trict, two territories, and various island possessions. 

2. Grouping of States. —The foUowing is a convenient group 
ing of the states and territories.* 

New England States. 


Maine, 

Vermont, 

Rhode Island, 

New Hampshire, 

Massachusetts, 

Connecticut. 

Middle Atlantic States. 

New York, 

Delaware, 

West Virginia, 

New Jersey, 

Maryland, 

(District of Columbiai 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 


Southern States. 

North Carolina, 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

South Carolina, 

Mississippi, 

Tennessee, 

Georgia, 

Louisiana, 

Oklahoma. 

Florida, 

Texas, 


Central States. 

Kentucky, 

Kansas, 

Wisconsin, 

Ohio, 

Iowa, 

Minnesota, 

Indiana, 

Nebraska, 

North Dakota, 

Illinois, 

Michigan, 

South Dakota. 

Missouri, 

Rocky Mountain and Pacific States. 


Colorado, 

Nevada, 

California, 

Montana, 

Idaho, 

Oregon, 

Wyoming, 

Utah, 

Washington, 

New Mexico, 

Arizona, 

Alaska Territory. 


Island Regions.—HatoaM Territory, Philippines, Porto Rico, St. Thomas, 
etc., Guam, Wake Island, and Tutuila and Manua, of the Samoa group, 

The States may also be grouped as Atlantic, Gulf, Inland, Lake, and 
Pacific States. We may speak of the “Valley States,” meaning those 
in the Mississippi Valley; and also of the “ Cotton States.” 

3. Early Colonies.—The first English colony was established 
at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. In 1620 the Pilgrims founded 
Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts. Maryland was settled by 
Englisli Roman Catholics, and Pennsylvania by Quakers. 

The Dutch had settlements in New York, the Swedes in New 
Jersey, and the Danes in Delaware; but about 1664 these colo¬ 
nies became subject to the English, who proceeded to establish 
and acquire others, until their colonies numbered thirteen. 

These were Virginia, Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, South Caro¬ 
lina, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. 

In 1776 they declared themselves free and independent States, and 
after a seven years’ war their Independence was acknowledged by 
Great Britain. They adopted a constitution in 1789, and established 
the government of The United States of America. 


* Note to Teachers.— Although the groups of States are usually studied in the 
above order, yet the class may begin the study of the various groups with that of 
their own section. The other groups may be taken up in any order that may be 
preferred. 


Owing to the absence of moisture, the air is rapidly 





On the Facific Highland—The Navajo District, showing the effect of 
the dry climate on vegetation. 
















35 


THE UNITED STATES: 


POPULATION, OOVEliXHENT, 


IXDUSTlilES. 


4. Acquisition of Territory.—Additional territory has been 
acquired by the United States, mainly by purchase. By these 
additions the area of the country has been increased fourfold. 


The Hoii.se of Kepresentatives consists of members chosen by 
the people to serve two years. Each State sends one rejiresenta- 
tive for every *211,877 inhabitants. 



In 1803 Louisiana, including the we.stom half of the Mississippi 
Valley, was purchased from the French. 

In 1819 Florida was purchased from Spain. 

In 1845 Texas, having previously revolted from Mexico and established 
her independence, was annexed to the United States. 

In 1848 California, with the territory lying between it and the Rocky 
Mountains, was ceded to the United States by Mexico. In 1853 the 
southern portions of Arizona ami New Mexico were purchased 
from Mexico. 

In 1867 Alaska was purchased from Russia. 

In 1898 Hawaii was annexed, and Porto Rico, the Philippine 
Islands, and Guam were ceded by Spain. 

In 1900 the United States acquired Tutuila and Manua. 

In 1904 the United States acquired control of the Canal Zone. 

In 1916 St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix were purcha.sed 
from Denmark. 

5. Inhabitants.—The inhabitants of the United 
States consist largely of the descendants of English 
colonists. But nearly every country of Europe has 
contributed to swell the population. Every year 
large numbers of new settlers arrive. 

A census is taken by the 
general government of the 
United States once 
every ten years. By 
the census of 1910 the 
population was over 
92,000,000; by the 
census of 1920 it was 
over 106,000,000. 


One of the members of tlie House of Re])resentalives is elected to pre¬ 
side at its meetings, and is called tlie Speaker. 

The Laws are made by C'ongress, with the approval of the 
President. 

If the President does not aj)t)rove of any t)il] })assed by Congre.ss, he 
may veto (refuse to sign) it. but it may still become a law by a two- 
thirds' vote of each House. 

Congre.ss holds its sessions in the Capitol at Washington. 

3. Executive Department.—The President is the chief 
executive officer. His duty is to see that the law's are 
executed or carried out. 

The Pi-esident and Vice-President are chosen for four years, by 
ele<‘tors elected by the people. 


The National Capitol. 


6. The largest cities in the United States are: 

More than 5,000,000 inhabitants—New York City. 

More than 2,000,000—Chicago. More than 1,000,000—Philadelphia. 

More than 500,000—-Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, Boston, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, 
Los Angeles, Buffalo, and San Francisco. 

More than 300,000—Milwaukee, Washington, Newark, Cincinnati, New Orleans, 
Minneapolis, Kansas City (Mo.), Seattle, and Indianapolis. 

More than 200,000—Jersey City, Rochester, Portland (Ore.), Denver, Toledo, 
Providence, Columbus, Louisville, St. Paul, Oakland, Akron, and Atlanta. 

More than 100,000—Omaha, W'orcester, Birmingham, Syracuse, Richmond, New 
Haven, Memphis, San Antonio, Dallas, Dayton, Bridgeport, Houston, Hartford, 
Scranton, Grand Rapids, Paterson, Youngstown, Springfield, Des Moines, 
New Bedford, Fall River, Trenton, Nashville, Salt Lake City, Camden, Norfolk, 
Albany, Lowell, Wblmington, Cambridge, Reading, Fort Worth, Spokane, 
Kansas City (Kan.), and Yonkers. 

Review Topics.—How many States and Territories in the United States? 
Divisions. The first English colony. The Plymouth Colony. The Roman Catho¬ 
lics. The Quakers. The Dutch. The Swedes. The Danes. What nation acquired 
pos.session of the Dutch, Swedish, and Danish colonies? What were the “Old 
Thirteen”? What occurred in 1776 ? How was Louisiana acquired ? Florida? 
Texas? California? Arizona? Alaska? Hawaii? Porto Rico? The Philip¬ 
pine Islands? What was the population in 1920? What city has more than 
5,000,000 inhabitants? Which has more than 1,000,000 ? More than 500,000? 

XXIII. GOVERNMENT. 

1. Government. —'Fhe Departments of the United States Gov¬ 
ernment are three : the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. 

2. The Legislative Department, or Congress, consists of 
the Senate and House of Representatives. 

The Senate is composed of two Senators from each State, 
chosen by the people to serve six years. 

The Vice-President is the presiding officer of the Senate. 


4. The Judicial Department comprises the federal courts. 
The Supreme Court consists of a Cliief-Jiistice and eight A.s.so- 
ciate Justices, appointed by the President, with the consent of 
the Senate. 

5. State Government.—Each State has a government similar 
to that of the United States. 

It has a Legislature consisting of two houses, a governor elected by 
the people, and a supreme court. Neither Congre.ss nor the 
legislature of a State has the right to make any law contrary to tlie 
Constitution and laws of the United States. 

Review Topics.— The departments of the Government. The Legislature. 
Who presides o\-er Uie Semite ? Of what does the House of Representatives consist ? 
Presiding officer. What body makes the laws? The President’s veto. Who is 
the chief executive officer of the United States? Term of office. How chosen? 
The Supreme Court. How is each State governed? 


XXIV. INDISTHIES. 


1. Manufacturing now excels all other industries of the 
United States in the value of its products. 

Our great factories are chiefly in the cities east of the Missis¬ 
sippi and north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. 

The ten leading products of manufacturing industries are : — 


1. Slaughtering and Meat Packing. 

2. Textiles. 

3. Iron and Steel Products. 

4. Automobiles. 

5. Clothing. 


6. Foundry and Machine Shop 

Products. 

7. Flour and Meal. 

8. Refined Petroleum. 

9. Steel Ships. 

10. Lumber and Timber Products. 






















SOLAR TIME — When it it Noon on the Meri( 
10:20 10:40 


Buibr? 




•ARCK 






^Re 


IMiicfaei 








iublican 






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^noj^iKa^ 


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ifa^rctd A 




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f ftuAojktpim 5«l?( 


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Briatf 

Bay 


ALASKA 

eCAte OF MILES 


^nalaska* 
INACASKA I, 


TAMAUUPas 


Loogltude Wect 


from Greenwich 


Longitude 


POLITICAL UNITED STATES. 

MAP STUDIES. —What parallel forms a large part of the northern 
boundary line ? What strait forms the western termination of the 
boundary ? Starting eastward from the Lake of the Woods, trace the 
boundary to the Atlantic. What gulf, river, and country form the southern 
boundary ? What ocean on the east ? On the west ? 


What States border on the Atlantic ? On the Gulf ? The Pacific ? 
The Great Lakes ? What partly bounded by the Mississippi ? Crossed 
by the Missouri ? Partly bordered by the Ohio ? The largest State ? 
The smallest ? . 

Which States are most favorably situated for commerce with Europe ? 
Which of the Atlantic ports are nearest to Europe ? MTiat natural 

































































/L.St.Soaephi 


8a§ u_«n^ 




HW« 


^i8ue v\ \ --^ 

'royal \ a 

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Orleans 


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OBY 

TORTUGA®^ 


eenwich 


Weat 


means of transportation do the States of the Mississippi Valley possess ? 
Through how many degrees of latitude does the Mississippi flow ? 

In addition to the rivers and lakes, what other means of transporta¬ 
tion has the United States ? By what water routes may a farmer in 
Illinois send grain to the Atlantic seaboard ? 

Where is Cape Cod ? Sandy Hook ? Cape May ? Hatteras ? Cape Sable ? 


Where is Washington ? New York ? Boston ? Philadelphia? Bal¬ 
timore ? Chicago ? Cleveland ? Cincinnati ? Louisville ? What city 
near the mouth of the Missouri ? What city near the mouth of the 
Mississippi ? Besides New Orleans, what are the two great Gulf ports ? 
What great port on the Pacific co^t ? Where is Savannah ? Norfolk ’ 
Each city of Portland ? Buffalo ? Detroit ? Milwaukee ? 


/ashing^ton, and 5:8 P.M. at Greenwich, England 
11:00 11:20 


11:40 


l ?:00 


12 : 


20 


1:00 P.M. 


UNITED STATES 


POLITICAL MAP 

SCALE OF MILES 


10,000 


100 Miles Square 




































































38 


INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES.—NEW ENGLAND STATES, MAP STUDIES. 





grain on thecanalat Williams- 

port, Maryland. Notice the Potomac River and railroad tracks. 


2. Agriculture is the occupation of about one-fourth the 
people of the United States, and its products rank next to manu¬ 
factures in value. The leading })roducts north of the parallel of 36° 
north are corn, 
wheat, oats, rye, 
barley, hay, pota¬ 
toes, flax, hemp, 
and tobacco. 

South of this 
parallel is the 
region of cotton, 
sugar, and rice. 

3. Stock rais¬ 
ing is the third important industry. In Texas and the States of 
the Great Plains, cattle and slieep ai-e raised in vast numbers. 

()ther animal products are the pork and 
wool of the Central States, tlie wool of the 
Rocky Mountain and Pacific States, and 
the milk, butter, and cheese of the Middle 
Atlantic States. 

4. Mining is a growing industry. 

The precious metals and copper are 
found mainly in the Rocky Mountain 
and Pacific States; coal and iron in the 
Appalachian and central regions. 

5. Lumbering is a greater industry in the United States than 
in any other country. Its products are valued at over two billion 
dollars annually. The chief forest regions are in the Pacific 
States, in the Lake States, and in the Southern States. 

6. The Fishing interests of the country are important. They 
engage the attention mainly of New Suglaud, the Chesapeake 
Bay States, the Lake States, and the Pacific States. 

7. Domestic Commerce.—The products and industries of the 
different sections of the country differ widely. This gives rise 
to a large and growing domestic commerce. This commerce is 
greatly aided by excellent transportation facilities. 

The Mississippi, with its .33 navigable tributaries, affords a cheap 
waterway for trade between the different States of the Mississippi 
Valley and coiinects them with the Gulf. The Mississippi is now 
connected with the Great Lakes by tbe Michigan and Illinois Canal. 

The Great Lakes, with the “ Soo ” Canal, the Welland and other Cana¬ 
dian canals and the St. Lawrence, form a second great water route. 


The Erie Barge Canal connects the Great Lakes and the Hudson 
River, and forms a third water route. 

By means of these and a vast system of railroads the different parts of 
the country readily exchange products. 

8. The Foreign Commerce of the United States is very large, 
and is steadily growing. In the year 1922, we imported $3,112,000,- 
000 worth of merchandise, and exported merchandise to the value of 
$3,832,000,000. This means that we produced more of some things 
than we needed for our own use, and that the “balance of trade” for 
that period was in our favor. 

The value of our imports in 1922 was about $1,218,000,000 more 
than in 1914, and the value of our exports in 1922 was about 
$467,000,000 more than in 1914. 

Our leading expoi’ts in 1922 were cotton, breadstuffs, meats, 
machinery, petroleum, iron and steel wares, chemicals, and copper- 
Our largest cu.stomers were Great Britain, 
Canada, Germany, the AVest Indies, France, 
Italy, and the Netherlands. 

Nearly one fourth of our export.s go to Great 
Britain. An important trade in flour, 
lumber, and manufactures is carried 
on with the We.st Indies and South 
America. 


Domestic Commerce: A steamboat being loaaea u'un cotton on the 
Yazoo River, one of the tributaries of the A1 isstsszppu 


The leading imports are dry goods and 
iron wares from Great Britain ; sugar, to¬ 
bacco, and fruits from the West Indies; coffee, hides,rubber, nitrate, 
and wool from South America; teas and raw silk from China and 
Japan ; silks, laces, and gloves from France; jute from India, and 
tin and rubber 
from the East 
Indies. 

Review 
Topics. —What 
are the five most 
important indus¬ 
tries of the United 
States? Where is 
each carried on ? 

What is said of 
grazing? Min¬ 
ing? Manufactur¬ 
ing? Fishing? Domestic Commerce? The great commercial water routes? The 
Mississippi trade? The Erie Canal? The Canadian canals? Describe other means 
of transportation. The foreign commerce of the United States. Exports. 
Imports. 


Domestic Commerce: A whaleback steamer passing from Lake Superior 
to Lake Huron through the “ Soo” Canal, 


MAP STUDIES. —Between wdiat parallels do the New England 
States lie ? Which is the largest ? The smallest ? 

Maine.—What is the general slope of Maine ? What lakes have 
outlets to the sea through the Penobscot ? Kennebec ? Androscoggin ? 
The St. John ? Wliat large island on the coast? What bays? Cape? 
What city on Casco Bay ? Where is Bangor ? Bath ? Lewiston ? Bid- 
deford ? What and where is the capital ? 

New Hampshire.—What mountains in the northern part of this 
State ? Name the largest lake in this State. Describe the course of the 
Connecticut River. Where is Concord ? Nashua ? Manchester ? Ports¬ 
mouth ? Dover ? What is the capital ? 

Vermont.—Near what parallel is the northern boundary of this State? 
What mountains traverse this State from north- to south ? Through 
what rivers do the waters of Lake Champlain reach the sea ? What lake 
in the northern part of the State ? What rivers in Vermont are tributary 


to the Connecticut ? Montpelier ? Rutland ? St. Albans ? Brattleboro ? 
What is the caj)ital ? 

Massachusetts. —What part of the Stete is mountainous ? Which 
are the principal peaks ? What part of the State is drained bj^ the Con¬ 
necticut ? By the Merrimac ? Name the capes. What bay on the eastern 
coast ? Southern coast? What is the capital ? Where is Lowell ? Law¬ 
rence ? Salem ? Lynn ? Springfield ? Worcester ? Pittsfield ? Fitcli- 
burg? Fall River? Taunton? Cambridge? Northampton? 

Rhode Island. —What bay in the southeastern part of the State? 
What city at its head? What point on the coast? What is the capital? 
Where is Newport ? 

Connecticut. —In Avhat direction does the surface slope? What rivers 
cross the State? Into what do they flow? What and where is the capital? 
Where is MiddletoAvn? New Haven? New London? Waterbury? 
Meriden? New Britain? Danbury? 

















West 


Longitude 


Greenwich 


;drauiidstoii 


Fort Kent 


Falls^ 




SCALE OF MILES 


St.Thoiij 


Caribou-rfSn 


QUEBEC 




Lotbinier 


Bndgewater 


Heron Z 


Sehoi^ 

Zai<« 


[Woodstock 


HoulV^’ 


Ai'thabasca 


Chesuncof 
VZafce •! 


Patten 


FREDERICTON' 


jj t^iahdin 


Haynesville 


Grand L- 


-Tfoose/icud 

jMke^ 


Richmond 


J^emaduiiicooA 
^ Zake 


Acton 


St-Hyacinthe 


Mattawamk 


■hitgank 


Moose Hid 


Sherbrooke 


j ^Granby / 

iW^t Farnham 

1“^ ZaTce 
\ ^'•^einphremagog' 


Lincoln 


'file Forks, 


[Lennoxville 


Passadumkeag 


’'.Moscow 


St.Johns •);! 


lompton^ Oi 


►over 


Mt.Bigslow 


Gi'eenbusU 


Rouse’s Point 


,Stanstea« 


.Dexter 


/CAMPO- 
ie£LLO I. 


Richfprd 

Newport 


Saddhback \ ( 

Mt.p . V ) 

'Mboeetoektiiagtintie Ansonr 
lice iS 

Phillips s_/\ Skowhfegan 


►Coriniu lA 


¥)no' 


Jolebrdok 


^^lAmhe] 


Island P< 


‘Brewer 


Poi*t 


Plattsburg 


Stratford 


Cherry- 

field! 


Bucksport 


FarmingtonV 


J’afi’field 


Guildhall. 


'atervilid 


Searwport^ 

Belfa8t*\ 


^ St.Johnsbu'y 

^Vaterbury 

O NTP>E LI E ^ 


’astiu" 


ilU^ton 


^earners HU' 
Vei^eim;« 


Mechan(c Falls 


i-mdeu 


'f^arre \ 

Northfi^d 

Newbury, 


Fiunconja 


ildobor* 


vvirton 


alMiddie- 


,AU HAUT 


N.Conwa; 


• Randolph 


►nderoga 


Brunswicl 


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Rutland 

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^ j^o^neyr^ 


Hartfor' 


ily mouth 


Lake | ^ 

Tfinnei>e8au^dd 


<>rtland 

[South Portland 

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wikstbrooW 


Woodetock, 


Bti^tol 


l^dsor 


tahodU 

Farmington 


Vankltnl 


Springflead, 


Rawlet 


rNewportM 

IharlestowK 


Sanford 


Ksarsarge 


Rochester 

%>inersv^o 


COfYCORD, 


[Bellows' 
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• ^Pticofa^ua R. 

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ISLES OP SHOALS' 


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y JiuJ New»ryport 
iJLawrencff ^apef^nn 
•Andjver 

■ggveT^yJw louceste r 

>burn j» 
Lyrm^lf^I^Tblehead 

Massachusetts 
'"a^pSTON Bay 


Wiiliamsto\w? 

SaddtelUt. 


I LEAN 


Fifehb, 

Gardner 
Athdl T 

Leox 

Wachusett] 


>57 i K 
^^ittsdeld 


j mT Concord, 

^Jlinton* Ca ni 
Marlboro. Walthaa 
4 Framingham - 


rblebesd 


ijster* O 


ludson 


^ Weyinouthv 

\ I 1 

^ I * 

*Brookton 


Brookfield 
^Chicopee ' 

Springfield 


‘Milford. 


[elrow 


^►vincetown 




.Enfield 


nsbeket^ 

„ - pSAshtffl 
?efitral Fallsj 

Coventry ' 


j^ttleboro 


IW(^ 


Rockville 


Arlin^^n- 


^ Winsted'lV 

/ .-vi' 

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lastham 


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South.Mancbester 

\2 \i 

iinN* Willimantic c 

c/sT I c^iji 

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'WIT'S M • L kT 

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l5 

New Js 
Londonj^ | 


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Stai^ford 


^TMARTMAS 
«a VINEYARD 


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hi^ TjamalcS . 
X f Plain/ 1 
^^Zhrest Ililh 
'^j Cem. 2 r 
I DorgList^ 

Mattapan ^ A 


5ant^^^NANTt3cKET I. 


Intum 


SLOCK I. 


Dedha^i^ 


Washington 


from 


Longitude 


mm' 


SOLAR TIME—When it is Noon on the Meridian of Washington, 


12:24 P.M. 


12:28 


12:32 


12:36 


12:40 


THE 


NEW ENGLAND STATES 


BOSTON AND VICINITY 

Seale > _■ _ ,S Miles 

Wobum^ 


IVciTmTtt 


Bay 


Bap 


^abant 
East Point 


Grower's Cliff 

inthrop Massachusetts 


lOEER (, • 

Ua-rbo^ '® B. 

'Zt t 

[THOg^ON'S 

'■ 4» 






























































































































































































































40 


NEW EN(ILANl) STATES : GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 


XXA'. X1]AV EX(;T.AXJ> states. 



The rocky New England coast at Marblehead^ Mass. 


State. 

Area in 
Sqr. Miles. 

Population, 

1920. 

Capitals. 

Chief Cities and their 
Population. 


.33,040 

9,341 

768,014 

443,083 

Augusta. 

Portland. 

69,272 

New Hampshire. 

Concord. 

Manchester... 

78,384 

X'crinont. 

9,564 

352,428 

Montpelier.... 

Burlington.... 

22,779 

.Massachusetts.. 

8,266 

3,852,356 

Boston. 

Boston. 

748,060 

Rhode Island . 

1,248 

604,397 

Providence.... 

Providence . . . 

237,595 

Connecticut.... 

4,965 

1,380,631 

Hartford. 

New Haven... 

162,537 


1. Position and Area.—Tlie New England States are situ¬ 
ated in the northeastern part of the United States. The six 
taken together are not as large as Nebraska, and they are less 
than one-third tlie size of Texas. 

2. Coast.—ddie coast line of these States, especially that of 
Maine, has a very jagged appearance, and a number of rocky 
islets fringe the shores—sure signs that there is no lack of dee]) 
water and good liai'bors. 

An irrc'j'iilar coast likt^ tliat of New England is the result of a 
sinking of a rocky coast. This causes the water to flow uj) tlie 
valleys and the luountain ridges to become cajies and headlands. A 
regular <'oasl line on the other hand, like that of the South Atlantic 
Plain, is a result of a rising of the land. The level ocean bed be¬ 
comes the coast, and is usually flat and sandy. Good harbors on 
such coasts are usually at the mouths of rivers. 

3. Surface. —The surface of New England is rugged and hilly. 

These States are traversed from northeast to southwest by 

mountains which extend from Canada nearly to Long Island 
Sound. They are a part of the Appalachian System. Name the 
ranges. The eastern section is an u])land broken by a succession 
of hills, with an occasional solitary mountain rising above the 
plateau. This is a Piedmont section. 

The mountains were once higher than they are now, and the Piedmont 
hills were once mountains, but they were gradually worn away. 
Some mountains, like Mount Monadnock, were of harder rock, and so 



The New England Plateau in Masaachiisetts, thawing the Connecticut river below Mount Holyoke. 


were not worn down like the others. Mountains such as this are 
called Mona<liiocks. 

Along the southeastern part of Massacliusetts is a belt of low¬ 
lands, the only coastal plain in New England. 

The White Mouiitaius, after those of North Carolina, are the highest 
east of the Rocky Mountains. Mount Washington, in New Hamp¬ 
shire, is 6,279 feet high ; Mount Mitchell, among the Black Mountains 
in North Carolina, is only 432 feet higher. 

4, Lakes and Rivers.—A marked feature of New England 
is the great number of fresh-water lakes scattered over its 
surface. 

These were made by an ancient glacier which once overspread this 
entire region. As it moved towai’d the sea it scoured out valleys or 
built dams across them with the rock-waste and bowlders which it 
dropped in melting. The mass of material left by a melting glacier 
is called a moraine. These moraines often dammed up streams 
and changed their courses, thus forming waterfalls and lakes, and 
altering the appearance of the country. 

The most important rivers are the Cpuneeticut, navigable to 
Hartford; the Merrimae, which, with its tributaries, furnishes 
water-power for more factories than any other river in the world; 
the Penobscot, navigable to Bangor; and the Keii- 



View at Manchester, N. H., showing factories along the Merrxmac river. 


flow thence to the sea must have a great descent, with rapid currents 
and falls, affording abundance of water-power. These rapid 
streams have contributed to make New England the leading manu¬ 
facturing district of the country. 

5. Climate.—The winters of New England, by reason of the 
latitude, are long and cold; the summers are short and hot. 

The nearness of these States to the sea has little effect upon their cli¬ 
mate, because the prevailing winds are from the land. A cold 
current from the Arctic Ocean flows near the coast, so that the east 
winds are always raw and chilly. 

6. Resources. — The most important minerals are the granite 
of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts; the slate and 
marble of Vermont; and the red sandstone of Connecticut. 
Metallic ores in workable quantity are rare. 

The soil in the river valleys is fertile, but in the uplands it is 
not well adapted to agriculture. 

The numerous rapid rivers, the forests, fisheries, and good 
harbors shape the leading occupations of this section. 

7. Industries.—The inhabitants of New England are chiefly 
engaged in manufacturing, commerce, shipbuilding, stone quar¬ 
rying, and fishing. 










































MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


41 




woolen goods, machin- 


Manufactures.—This region is scarcely excelled in the world 
in the variety and amount of its manufactures. 

The leading ^ articles of manufacture 

are cotton and 
ery, hardware, 
firearms, rubber 
goods, boots and 
shoes, silver- 
ware, and elec¬ 
trical machines. 

x/tAii oic^o blit vitn u/'c u/ 

o i. r. c shoes at Brockton. Mass.: 1. Cut- 
omaii .W a 1 e s , Ung the soles. 

also, such as pins, needles, buttons, and 
combs, are produced in great variety. 

A large proportion of the machinery 2 . cuttino the upper. 
for making textile goods, and much of the woolen, cotton, and 
leather goods manufactured in the United States are produced in 
New England. 

Commerce.—New England buys a great amount of food for 
her inhabitants, and also large quantities of raw materials, such 
as cotton, aa'ooI, hides, and rubber, for her many mills and fac¬ 
tories. She sells her manufactured articles, which are shipped 
to all parts of the world. All this makes a large foreign com¬ 
merce and a very extensive trade Avith other parts of our oAvn 
country. 

The principal exports are textiles, boots and shoes, other man¬ 
ufactured articles, lumber, granite, and salt fish. 

Fisheries.—Boston, Gloucester, and NeAvburyport are the chief 
towns engaged in the fisheries; they are all in Massachusetts. 


The timber Avhich is cut in tlie forests of the northern part of the State 
during the winter, is drawn over the frozen snow to the banks of the 
streams, upon which it is launched and floated down in the spring. 
Most of it descends the Penobscot liver to Bangor, where it is 
sawed into lumber. 

Hay is the most valuable agricultural product. Potato growing in the 
northern part of the State has become very important. Much starch 
is manufactured fi’oni the potatoes. 

I, the principal 
r, has an excellent 
harbor and an 
extensive foreign 
commerce. 

It has railway con¬ 
nections with Can¬ 
ada. A vast amount 
of the trade be¬ 
tween Canada and 
on through this 
winter, when the 
St. Lawrence river is frozen OA’er. 

Bangor is the great lumber market of the State. 

Lewiston, Biddeford, Waterville, and Augusta, the capital, are 
all located at the falls of rivers, and are importe.nt manufacturing 
towns. The leading product in each.is cotton goods. Auburn has 
large shoe factories, and Lewiston, woolen mills. Bath is famous 
for its lumber trade and shipbuilding. Westbrook manufactures 
paper and cotton and silk goods. Rocklaiifl supplies much of the 
lime used in the Atlantic States. - 

3, New Hampshire.—This State is often called the “ Granite 
State,” because of the altundance of its granite rock, and the 
“Switzerland of America,” because of the beauty and grandeur 




fishing- 


Their 
grounds for cod 
and mackerel are, 
however, largely 
on the llanks of 
NeAvfoundland. 

8. The Motm- 
tains. Lakes, 
and Seashores 
of New England 

are every summer 
get aAvay from the 


\Vool’Carding machines at Lawrence, Mass. They straighten the fiber and separate 
it into Jong rolls that are next drawn out and twisted into yam. 

visited by thousands of people, Avho wisli to 
city during the hot season. 


of its lake and mountain scenery. The White Mountains 
are the chief natural feature of the State. They contain 
Mount Washington, the highest point in New England. 
The State has only a few miles of seacoast, and hence its 
people are little giv^en to seafaring. 

They are largely engaged in working quarries of stone. 
Grazing is an important occupation; but the most valu¬ 
able industry is manufacturing; and boots and shoes, 
cotton and Avoolen goods, lumber and paper, are the 
chief articles made. 

4. Cities.—Mancbester, the largest, and Nashua, the 
second city, are located at falls on the Merrimac. They are noted 
for their boot and shoe factories and cotton mills. 



Review Topics.—Area, capital, and chief city of each New England State. 
The coast line. What advantage arises from it?- Describe the surface of New 
England. What mountains in the west? 1'he Coastal Plain. What is the loftiest 
mountain? How were the lakes formed? Name the most impor¬ 
tant rivers. Describe the Merrimac. Why is there ample water-power? 

Effect on industries. The climate. Prevailing winds. Mineral resources. 

The soil. What determines the leading industries? Name the chief occu¬ 
pations. Rank as a manufacturing region. The leading articles pro¬ 
duced. The commerce. Exports. Fisheries. 

XXYI. NEW ENGLANB STATES (Continued). 

1. Maine.—Maine, the largest of the New England 
States, is the most easterly State in the Union. 

It ranks high in manufactures of textiles, paper, lum¬ 
ber, in fisheries, and in the harvesting of ice. Its forests 


/• 1 1 - This is pressed into sheets by passing through many iron rollers which dry and 

of pine have made it first in the building of wooden ships, finish it. 


Concord, the capital and third city in the State, contains ex¬ 
tensive car shops of the Boston and Maine Railroad, and is cele¬ 
brated for the manufacture of wagons and coaches. Granite, 

belting, and sil- 
verAvare are other 
leading manufac¬ 
tured products of 
Concord. 

Portsmouth, on 

the Piscataqua 
river, is the only 
seaport in New 
Hampshire. It has 
an excellent har¬ 
bor, upon which 
directly across 


































42 


NEW ENGLAND STATES.—MIDDLE STATES, MAP STUDIES. 



raw materials from all parts 
of the United States and from 
foreign countries. It exports 
grain, meat, and manufactured 
products. 

Boston ranks high among our 
manufacturing cities. The lead¬ 
ing products are refined sugar, 
shoes, clothing, machinery, and 
books. As a wool and leather 
market it ranks first. 
Cambridge is the seat of 
Harvard University, the 
oldest of our higher institu¬ 
tions of learning. 

Viewof Boston, showing the State Capitol, the famous Boston Common, and Tremont Street, a leading 
bus ness thoroughfare. On the Common next to the street are the entrances to the subway. 

The largest manufacturing establishments for cotton and woolen 
goods are at Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford. Lawrence 


the border at Kittery, in 
Maine, is one of our finest 
navy yards. 

Dover manufactures cotton 
goods. Berlin has lumber 
mills and paper factories. 

Hanover is the seat of Dart¬ 
mouth College. 

6. Vermont. —Vermont 
(vert, green; mont, moun¬ 
tain') , so called from the Green 
Mountains which traverse it, 
is an inland State. 

It is a fine wool-growing, 
stock-raising, and dairying country, and is specially famed for its 
horses. In the production of maple sugar it excels all other 
States. Its manufactures are steadily increasing, especially those 
of lumber, paper, and textiles. 

Its quarries of marble, granite, and slate are extensive and 
valuable. 

6. Cities. —Burlington, the largest city, is on Lake Cham¬ 
plain. It is extensively engaged in the lumber trade. 

Montpelier is the capital. Rutland is located near important marble 
quarries. Bennington manufactures textiles. Barre has marble 
and granite works. St. Johnsbury manufactures weighing scales. 


leads in woolens. Lynn, Haverhill, and Brockton lead in boots 
and shoes; Worcester in textile machinery, wire rope, and 
woolens. 

At Springfield is an armory of the United States where rifles for the 
public service are made. Somerville has great meat-packing estab- 
fishments. Malden manufactures rubber boots and shoes; Salem, 
boots and shoes, and leather. Holyoke manufactures paper and tex¬ 
tiles. Pittsfield makes textiles, paper, and machinery. Taunton is 
noted for the manufacture of cotton, stoves, and silver and plated ware. 

9. Rhode Island.—Rhode Island is the smallest, but one of 



7 . Massachusetts.—Massachusetts, the “ Bay State,” is the 

wealthiest and ir-most populous 

land States. It 

ranks first in the 
manufacture of 
boots and shoes, 
rubber, cotton 
and woolen 
goods. In com¬ 
merce and wealth 
it is one of the 

most prominent, taking solid silverware at the Gotham works. 

/>••*.• Providence, Rhode Island. 1. Shouiing steel 

8. Cities.- rollers which press the silver bars into sheets. 

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts, and 
the largest and most important city of New 
England. It is distinguished for its places of historic interest. 


Boston has a splendid harbor and is the center from which the chief 
railroads of New England radiate. Its imports rank in value next to 
those of New York. It receives cotton, wool, hides, coal, and other 


2. Showing how the sheets are hammervd into 


vessels. 

on one of the 
New England, 
summer resort. 


the most densely populated States. It is largely engaged in 
manufacturing woolen and cotton goods, jewelry, machinery, 
electrical apparatus, silverware, and silk goods. 

10. Cities. —Providence, the second city in New England, 
and also the State capital, has a large commerce and ex¬ 
tensive manufac¬ 
tures of worsteds, 
jewelry, machin¬ 
ery, silverware, 
and cotton goods. 
It is the seat of 
Brown Univer¬ 
sity. 

Newport is 
beautifully situated 
finest harbors in 

_and is noted as a 

3. A workman decorating a silver vase. j, ^ t U C k © t 

manufactures textiles and thread. It has the oldest cotton mill in the 
United States; 'Woonsocket, worsteds; and Central Falls, cottons. 


MAP STUDIES.—Between what parallels do these States lie ? 
Which State is most mountainous ? Which border on the Great Lakes ? 

New York.—What mountains in this State ? What lakes form part 
of the boundary ? What rivers ? W'hat celebrated falls ? 

Describe the course of the Hudson. The Genesee. The Black. What lakes 
are drained by the Oswego River ? How do their waters reach the sea ? 

What lake separates New York and Vermont ? Where is Lake 
George ? Trenton Falls ? What two islands belong to New York (see 
small maps)? Where is New York City ? Name its divisions. "Where is 
Yonkers ? Poughkeepsie ? What and where is the capital ? Where is 
Buffalo ? “What canal connects Buffalo and Albany ? 

New Jersey.—"What portion of this State is mountainous? What 
river forms the western boundary ? What bay the southern ? Where is 


Sandy Hook ? What cape at the southern extremity of the State ? What 
and where is the capital? Describe Newark; Jersey City; Paterson. 

Pennsylvania.—What parallel forms the northern boundary ? What 
river the eastern ? What lake borders the northwestern corner ? What 
large river crosses this State and flows into Chesapeake Bay ? What part 
of the State is traversed by mountain ranges ? 

Through what part of the State does the Allegheny River flow ? The 
Monongahela ? Where do they unite ? What city at their junction ? 
Where is the Delaware Water-Gap ? Where is Philadelphia ? What is 
said of Harrisburg ? Scranton ? Reading ? Lancaster ? Erie ? 

Routes of Travel.—How would you go by steamboat from New 
York to Albany ? From New York to Philadelphia ? How do steamers 
enter the Sound from New York ? What is the East River ? 



















I 



SOLAR TIME —When it is Noon on the Meridian of Washington 


Longitude 


Greenwich 


West from 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC 
STATES 

NORTHERN DIVISION 




rtorrisbuj 


*dl:tCovington 


Hideau 

LakeJ 


Prescott 


Potsdam 


Brockville 


Kiton 


Gouvernejjr ^ASararwe] 


Kingston/'i^ 


felizahethtowntr*^ 
g ^ Mt.Marvy , | 


Naj^uiee 


^.-^layton ) (^ 0 ^,) 
!aije Vincentf 

1 ?^ 

WatertA^n 

w^ackett’s 
S Ilarhor 
\ Lowville^ 

/* Marttnsburg*' 


IMctou 


Tlcoiiderogfa 


Schrouii- 


Watson 


Korth Ci*e^ 


TORONTO 


Pulaski 


Boonvill 


xation 232 feet 


/Oswego 

Fulton 


riainiltoi' 


Albion 


BrantforJ 


/ \/ Saratoga 

/ ...» Springs 

f Gloversvilie 
■<>hn3to\Mi* Ballston# 'Q_ 


St. Gathering 
X Clift 


Brockport'~'XJ Rochester 
^ L; 

Batavia / 


Oneida 


^Syracuse 


•Tonawaw 


Tona Wanda 


I Hoo^ 

^^^Cohoes 

^TTroy 

’^Rensselat 


Le Roy 


Siincoe 


hfield 
iSprs.' 


[azer^ovia 


tVatenoo 

K^ev^ 

t Peiini \ 
Van 1 


.Skati^ateUa L, 


Hamburg 


Coqpersto\\*n' 


Cortland 


^Ounkirl 

Fredonia 


Rorwich* 


leonfa. 


Ithaca 


Watkins 


Homell 


Bath 


Chautau^d 


Hudson 


Salamanca 


Walton 


Wellsville 


oVego 


imton 


Olean 


I Jamestown 


Addison (Or 


Waverly 


Girard 


Saugerties' 

Kingstonj 


Tivoli 


Great Bend 


Athens] 


Bradford 


Union 


Susquehanna 


arren 


Jlontrose 


•nville 


Towanda, 


CouderspSft 


Poughkeej 


Meadvllle 


Titusville 


limesdal©' 


BJossburg 


Carbondale, 
/A Dunmore / 


B^con 


Newburghi 

iiddle-/ Westi 
H>\vu/' Point 

T^-s. Ortanmood 


.mporium 


FranJclin’ 


Ridgway 


Pol t Jervis) 


.Renovo 


^Claiion ^Brockville 


♦ Bubole 
Clearfield 


i^fewcastb 


Milt' »n, 


Stroudsburg 


S.'Bethlet^m. 


Lewisbur t' 


DeUware^ 

Water Gap 


Belle-; 

fonce^ 


Uaucil* I 
Chunk^i.: 
Tainaqua''^^k 

\Po«sviUe 

SchuylkiU^V Allentown 
Haven 


iunburyj 


C3, ISLAND 

Hempste^ 


VRittanning 


New Brighton 
I Rochester 
\ Tarentum^ 


lst0^vn• 


Eastoni 


I/cwUtoavn 

Uitiiigdon 


Indioiia 


Plainfield 


iQffiintOwH 


Pitteburgm 

^Braddock ( 

Jc«DDett« 

^ ^ Greens-. 


Keir BrunstMiek. 

Princ«Jtom 


a KeyporP 
Red Bank 


I Mh'Keespon 
/ Washington ^ 

r ‘ c*’^*"* 

} Monotv* 

ifnesbux^^j^y*^ 

K I TJnioib 


Iday'sbnrg 


Lebanon 


)Johnttov I 


i ^R eading Doylestown 

Pottstown , 

ni*. .,,Al Norristown ^P/ 

Phcenucville^N»..*.aQ^jjgjjQij<^L^j^ 

.ancaster . 

CoatesviU© ^^^HpCamd* 


«ong- Branch 

Freehold^dburv 

LakawdJ ^ 


rTHCNTON 


HAR'RIS'BORQ 

ifSteeltoDL .r> 
Middletown 


ytechanics. 
burg _ 


Bedfojfd, 


Ciian^>e)']d>^t1? 


r * f , 

GettJ^burg 


‘Hanover 


Iniegat a^gBarneyai 


y^Mgieshoro/ 


Salem 

Vinelai 

Bridgeton 


rereto 


'!fc5[^dleyviHo 


VICINITY OF 

PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
AND TRENTON, N.J 


^Atlantic City 


B^tiinore 


>6 Miles 


Chestertow 


Centre vine 


DOVER- 


(ustleton 


German to’ 




rank ford' 


iRaston 


dexandri 


oroua 

Qu««j« 

« K 


ijVmaica 


lamde, 


.\Haddon& 
5r>^ field , 


mond . 

f Btai 


^ Riverhead 

't ^iC 

PntcTlO^^Ae 


^AUTIC OCEAjf 
VICINITY OF 

NEW YORK 

b Miles 


Lower Bay 
Sandy 


ISLAND 


LONG ISLAND, N.Y. 

ScaU same aaUke Large Map. 


Longitude East 
from Washington 



























































































































































44 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES: GENEEAL DESCEIPTION. 


11. Connecticut.—Connecticut ranks high in the manufacture 
of brass and bronze products, machinery, cotton and silk goods, 
firearms and ammunition, woolen goods, hats, silverware, automo¬ 
biles, rubber goods, and cutlery. A large part of the silverware 
and plated ware, and most of the pins and clocks used in the 
United States, are made here. 

It is largely engaged in the coasting trade. 

The valley of the Connecticut is very fertile. Hay and tobacco 
are the leading farm products. 

12. Cities. — Hartford, the capital, is at the head of navigation 
on the Connecticut, and has large insurance and manufacturing 
intere.sts. New Haven is the seat of Yale University, one of our 
old and famous educational institutions. Its chief manufactures 
are firearms, rubber goods, hardware, tools, and corsets. 

Britlgeport is the foremost city of the State in manufacturing; New 
London makes silk goods and machinery; Stamford makes locks. 

Norwich is a center of cotton manufacture; Waterbary makes 
clocks, watches, and brass ware; Meriden, silver-plated ware; New 
Britain, hardware; Danbury as a hat manufacturing city ranks 
first in the United States; WTlliinantic is noted for thread and 
textiles; Portland, for its quarries of red sandstone. 

Review Topics.—The largest New England State. Its chief manufactures. 
Describe Bangor. Portland. The important manufacturing towns. Augusta. 
Bath. What is New Hampshire often called? Coast-line. Principal industries. 
Concord. Manchester. Nashua. Dover. Keene. Portsmouth. Where is 
Dartmouth College? Important industries of Vermont. Its chief cities. The 
rank of Massachusetts in fisheries; manufactures; commerce and wealth. De¬ 
scribe Boston. Cambridge. Describe Worcester. Springfield. Lynn. New 
Bedford. Taunton. Which is the smallest State? In what engaged? Locate 
Newport. Describe Providence. What does Connecticut manufacture? Noted 
crop of the Connecticut Valley. Describe Hartford. New Haven. Bridgeport. 
New London. Portland. Other manufacturing towns in Connecticut. 



Delaware Water Gap, where the Delaware E ver cute ite way through the mountains. The 
mountain tops, all on the same level, show that the region was once a plateau through which 
the valleys have been cut by the stream. 


XXYIl. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 


SXilTE. 

Area in 
Sqr. Miles. 

Population, 

1920. 

Capitals. 

Chief Cities and their 
Population. 

New York. 

49,204 

10,385,227 

Albany.... 

New York. . 

.5,620,048 

New Jersey. 

8,224 

3,155,900 

Trenton... 

Newark.... 

414,524 

Pennsylvania. 

45,126 

8,720,017 

Harrisburg. 

Philadelphia 

1,823,779 

Delaware. 

2,370 

223,003 

Dover..... 

Wilmington. 

110,168 

Maryland. 

12,327 

1,449,661 

Annapolis . 

Baltimore... 

733,826 

District of Columbia 

70 

437,571 


Washington. 

437,571 

Virginia. 

42,627 

2,309,187 

Richmond . 

Richmond . 

171,667 

West Virginia. 

24,170 

1,463,701 

Charleston. 

Wheeling.. . 

56,208 


1. Position and Area. —The Middle Atlantic States embrace 
nine degrees of latitude. They extend several degrees farther 
to the south than the New England States, and have a milder 


climate and more varied agricultural productions. The two sec¬ 
tions differ also in many of their leading pursuits. 

New York alone is nearly tliree-fourths the size of all the New England 
States pnt together ; while all the Middle Atlantic States united are 
about two thirds the size of Texas. 

2. Coast.—The coast-line of the Middle Atlantic States is 
remarkably indented. Its harbors are among the best on the 
Atlantic seaboard. 

3. Surface.—Land that is formed of the rock waste that the 
rivers have brought down from the mountains is called alluvial. 
Level land that has been at one time the bed of the sea is called a 
luariue plain. 

The seaboard of the Middle Atlantic States, and of all the 
! country to the southward, is partly alluvial and partly marine, 

I and both together form the Coastal Plain. 

The line where the Coastal Plain joins the Piedmont is marked 
by falls and rapids, as those of the Delaware at Trenton, the 



The fall line at Richmond, Va„ where the James River plunges from the Piedmont Plateau 
to the Coastal Plain. The rocks are granite and are the remains of an old mountain range now 
worn down. 


Schuylkill at Philadelphia, the Patuxent near Baltimore, the 
Potomac near Washington City, the Kappahannock at Fredericks¬ 
burg, and the James at Eichmond. This line is often called the 
Fall Line. 

• Beyond the Coastal Plain and beginning at the Fall Line is the 
Piedmont, a broad and fertile strip of rolling and hilly country 
which, like the Piedmont jjlateaus of New England, was once 
very high mountainous country, but has been worn down. 

Next we have the Mountain region crossed from northeast to 
southwest by the Blue Eidge, the Alleghenies, and other ranges 
of the Appalachian system. 

In New York the Adirondack Mountains are an outlying portion 
of the Laurentian Highland. Mt. Marcy is the highest peak in 
this group of states. The Catskill Mountains are the eastern 
edge of the Appalachian Plateau. 

4. Drainage.—The Middle Atlantic States are divided by the 
mountains into two slopes, one of which inclines toward the 
southeast, and carries the drainage into the Atlantic Ocean; 
and the other to the northwest, with drainage both into the 
Great Lakes, by numerous small streams, and into the Gulf of 
Mexico through the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 

B. Rivers and Lakes.—The principal rivers of the eastern 
slope are the Hudson, one of the most important water routes 
to the sea; the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, 
and the James. On the western slope are the Allegheny, the 




































MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 


45 


Moiioiigrahela, and the Great Kanawha, all of which enter the 
Ohio. 


The Commerce of the Middle Atlantic States is more important 
than that of any other section of the country. 



The Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, and the 
James rivers liave cut gaps in the mountains on their way to the 
Atlantic Ocean. These water-gaps furnish easy routes for rail¬ 
roads. The rivers are navigable up to the Fall Line. 

The lakes are chieHy in the State of New York. 

The Falls of Niagara, over which the water of the Great Lakes de¬ 
scends on its way to tlie Atlantic, are partly within this State. 

6. Climate.—The Gulf Stream sweeps close to the shores of 
the Middle Atlantic States, and the winds from the sea temper 
their climate. Their northern section has a temperature similar 
to that of New England; the southern is much warmer. 

7. Minerals.—In most of these States iron is mined. Coal 
abounds in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Virginias; zinc in 
New Jersey and Virginia; salt in New York and West 
Virginia; and petroleum in Pennsylvania, New York, 
and West Virginia. 

8. Pursuits and Products.—The leading pursuits 
are agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and com¬ 
merce. The milder climate and richer soil of this 
section make agriculture more profitable than in New 
England. 

The grains, orchard fruits, berries, and garden 
vegetables do well in all these States. 

Still, so great is tlie town and city population of this 
section, and 
also of New 
England, in 
comparison 
with their ru¬ 
ral population, 
that as we pass 
in review State 
after State, 
from Maine to¬ 
ward the 
south, w'e find 
none of them 
producing 
-cornand wheat 
enough for 
its own con¬ 
sumption until 
we come to 
M a r y 1 and. 


The Middle States, like New England, buyenormousquantities of food 
products for the inhabitants, and raw materials for the manufactures. 
Most of the 
railways and 
canals which 
traverse our 
great agricul- 
turaland min- 
ing regions 
bring their 
freight to the 
seaboard cities 
of tliis section 
for export. 

All this, com- 

The steel ingot is heated again, rolled and 
exit into two or three lengths called blooms. 
The blooms are again heated and taken to 
the great rail mill where they are rolled 
into steel rails. This cut shows one of the 
rolling mills. 

billed with the great trade 
caused by the sale of her manu¬ 
factures, makes a vast com¬ 
merce. 

Tlie exports, which include 
articles from all sections, are 
cotton, w'heat, flour, corn,, 
tobacco, live stock, petro-* 
leuni, and manufactured' 
goods. 


which 

meiiea steel xs drawn from the convert' 
ers. As it cools the mold is removed and 
an ingot of steel remains. 


Review Topics.—Name the 
Middle Atlantic States. Compare 
with New England. De.scribe thet 
coast-line. Harbors. Define alluvial country. Describe the Coastal Plain.' 
The Piedmont Kegion. What Mountains traverse these States? Describe^ 
the slope of these States. Name the principal rivers of each. Describe 
the water-gaps. The lakes. Niagara Falls. The climate. The mineral 
productions. The agricultural productions. Which State produces bread- 
stuffs enough for home use ? What are the chief crops of each State? 
The principal manufactures. What States rank first in manufacturing? 
Describe the commerce. Exports. 

XXVIII. NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, AND 
PENNSYLVANIA 


1. New York.—New York, the “ Empire State,” ranks 
first among the States in wealth, population, manufactures, 
and commerce. 

The climate of Western New York is tempered by the 

This State uro- steel near Pittsburgh. The iron is melted in the. jurnace, poured into little LakeS, which lliodify the West winds aS they SWeep OVer 

I cars called ladles, rolled to the mixer where it is treated, and then poured into the 
duC6S corn and converter. This cut shows a converter ready to be loaded with melted iron from tllOlTl. 

the mixer near by in the center. When it is loaded the converter is turned so 

wheat to sell, that it stands as the other two converters. Hot air is forced through the melted tdierefor© 3/ fine Hffricultural COUntrV 

iron, which raises it to white heat, burning out all the imvurities and converting * 


This part of the State has, moreover, a fertile soil. 

Wheat, corn. 

The hay and bJa'VffaL aK pour flames, potatoes, oats, aiul the hardier orchard fruits flourish here. 


wool crops and the dairy products of New York and Pennsyl¬ 
vania are very large. 

Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Maryland produce and export 
large quantities of tobacco. 

Manufacturing is the leading industry in these States, as in 
New England. The principal manufactures are iron and steel 
and their products, and clothing, silk, woolen and cotton goods, 
packed meats, and lumber products. 

New York ranks first, and Pennsylvania ranks second, among 


New York is famous for its butter, hay, apples, and grapes. 

The chief mineral resources of this State are its salt springs and 
iron ores. It has also valuable oil wells and mineral springs. 

The falls and rapids of Niagara have a descent of about 300 feet. They 
therefore show that Lake Erie is on a terrace 300 feet above Lake On¬ 
tario. The smaller lakes are situated on the same terrace with Lake 
Erie, consequently the rivers, which carry the water of these lakes 
into Lake Ontario, have either to leap precipices or to descend by 
rapids in order to escape from this terrace. Their falls afford fine 
water-power. 


the States in manufacturing. 


2. Cities.—New York is the largest and richest city in 























46 


NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 



The harbor of New York consists of the Hudson river, the East river, and the bay in which they meet at the southern end of the island. This picture shows the East river looking toward 
Brooklyn. The long, white buildings are piers where ships lie; on the shore are warehouses where goods are stored. The steamships which appear beside the piers sail to various ports; some to the West 
Indies, and others to iMexico, Central America, and South America. Near the Brooklyn Bridge are piers from which steamboats sail for cities on Long Island Sound. Most of the steamer piers are 
on the Hudson river. 



America, and is second only to London among the great cities of 
the world. It comprises live boroughs, the most important of 
which are Manhattan and Brooklyn, which ai’e connected by 
tunnels and suspension bridges. 

In manufactures New York ranks first among our cities, and 
its commerce is nearly equal to that of all the other parts of the 
country put together. 

The leading exports from New York are grain and flour, meat and 
dairy pi’oducts, iron and steel goods, and petroleum. The imijorts 
are mainly raw sugar, coffee, textile goods, tobacco, and every sort 
of manufactured wares. 

There are many great banks and trust companies in the citv 
which have inthem 
hundreds of mil¬ 
lions of dollars. 

This money is used 
to carry on com¬ 
merce andtoestab- 
lish great enter¬ 
prises in all parts of 
the United States. 

This makes New 
York one of the 
great money cen¬ 
ters of the world. 

It is the seat of Columbia University and New 
York University. 

Albany, the capital, has car and machine shops, 
knitting mills, and shirt factories. 

It is at the head of navigation on the Hudson and is 
a terminus of the Erie and Champlain Barge Canals. 

3. Buffalo, at the western end of the Erie Barge 
Canal, is a leading lake port and depot for grain, 
meats, coal, and lumber. It has e.xtensive man¬ 
ufactures and a large commerce on the Lakes. 


Yards of the Pennsylvania Railroad at' 
Jersey City, showing the freight cars loaded 
with articles which make up part of the 
commerce of New York. 


Rochester, on the Genesee, and Oswego, at the mouth of the 
Oswego River, possess fine water-power. Cameras, lenses, cloth- 
ing, and boots and shoes are the leading products of Rochester, 
hardware, hosiery and knit goods of Oswego. In and near 
Rochester are renowned nurseries of fruits and flowers. Syracuse 
manufactures automobiles, machinery, and clothing. 


From the salt springs near Syracuse, and the salt works in the dis¬ 
trict of Warsaw, nearly one-fourth of the annual salt product of the 
United States is obtained. Utica manufactures textiles, Schenec¬ 
tady, locomotives, and electrical macliinery and supphes. 

Troy makes collars and cuffs and has enormous laundry works. Its 
Polytechnic School is one of the best. 

Saratoga Springs is celebrated for its mineral springs. 

The country bordering upon the Hudson is in a high state of improve¬ 
ment. Handsome houses and beautiful grounds meet the eye at every 
turn, and lend enchantment to the scenery. Newburgh and Pough¬ 
keepsie are manufacturing cities. The United States Military 
Academy is at West Point on the Hudson, and Vassar College, a 
noted college for women, is at Poughkeepsie. 

Yonkers is noted for carpets and rugs, machinery, and refined sugar; 

Binghamton, cigars and shoes; Blmira, fire engines, 
iron wares, and carriages; Auburn, harvesting mar 
chinery; and Watertown, air-brakes and carriages. 

4. New Jersey.—The greater part of New 
Jersey lies within the very productive Coastal 
Plain of the Atlantic seaboard, and has a mild 
climate. It is, therefore, specially adapted to 
agriculture. The farms are largely devoted to 
market gardening, and supply New York and 
Philadelphia with fruits and vegetables. 

The State is rich in niines of iron and zinc, 

and in deposits of 
marl, a kind of 
earth used for 
fertilizing. 

This State ranks 
first in the manu¬ 
facture of sewing 
machines and silk 
goods and in the 
dyeing of textiles, 
and second in the 
refining of petro¬ 
leum. 

5. Cities. —Newark, the largest city, is noted for copper refining, 
and the manufacture of leather, machinery, jewelry, malt liquors, 
paint, varnish, electrical goods, and chemicals. Paterson is cele¬ 
brated for railway locomotives and silk goods; Camden for ship¬ 
building and leather. Jersey City and Hoboken, at the mouth of 
the Hudson, are largely engaged in shipping and manufacturing. 


Buffalo harbor: a grain elevator and a ivhaleback freight steamers 





































NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA. 


47 



Princeton is the seat of Princeton Uni¬ 
versity, one of tlie most celebrated 
educational institutions in the United 
States. 

Trenton has extensive iron works and 
potteries. Elizabeth manufactures 
sewing macliines and electrical goods. 
New Brunswick has large rubber 
works. Atlantic City, Cape May, 
Long Branch, and Asbury Park 
are noted summer re.sorts. 


Manufacturing silk cloth in Paterson. The raw silk 

first pi<^ure at the top of the page shows the silk 
thread into hanks so that it can be dyed. The ne 
being made into warp for weaving. The third shows the Jacquard Loom, 
which weaves the brocaded silk. 

6. Pennsylvania, the “Keystone State,” 
is the leading mining State in the Union. It 
supplies about half the coal and much of the 
petroleum, and smelts, though it does not mine, 
about half the iron produced in the United States. 

The coal of Pennsylvania is the chief article of fuel used 
throughout the Middle Atlantic and New England States for 


7. Cities.—Philadelphia, the third largest city in the 
Union, is one of the first in manufactures and commerce. 
It manufactures woolen and cotton goods, clotliing, printed 
matter, refined sugar, machinery, leather, steel ships, cari^ets, 
and packed meat. It is a great coal depot. 

It is celebrated for its medical scliools and academies, its charitable 
institutions, and its historic buildings. Here is the Old State 
House where the Declaration of Iiidepeudcuce was signed. 
Pittsburgh, the second city in the State, is situated at the head of 
the Ohio River. It now includes the former city of Allegheny and 
forms a very large center of population, and is extensively engaged in 
manufacturing iron and .steel, and machinery. Petroleum and bitumin¬ 
ous coal are sent out in vast quantities. Eide is the 
lake port of the State. It ships coal and iron. ’Williams¬ 
port is a lumber market and has silk mills. Laiica.ster is 
an important tobacco market. 

The flourishing cities of Scranton, Beading, Wilkes- 
Barre, and Pottsville are in the coal region, and are all 
engaged in iron and steel and textile industries, and in the 
coal trade. Harrisburg, the capital, is largely interested in 
the manufacture of iron. Altoona has the largest car 
shops in the State; Johnstown makes steel and hard¬ 
ware; Allentown, steel and silk goods; McKee.sport, 
steel and lumber; Chester, cotton and worsted goods, 
steel, and hardware. 

Review Topics. —How does New York rank in wealth, in 
population, in commerce, in manufactures? For what products 
is New York famed? What are its minerals? How much 
higher is Lake Erie than Lake Ontario ? Describe the City of New 
York. Albany. Buffalo. Kochester. Osw’ego. Troy. The 
Hudson. West Point. Why is New Jersey adapted to agriculture ? 
What are its minerals? Describe Newark and Paterson. Jersey 
City. Hoboken. Princeton. Trenton. In what does Pennsylvania 
excel ? How much iron does she produce ? Coal ? Petroleum ? 
Manufactures ? Important agricultural products ? Describe Philadelphia. Pitts¬ 
burgh. Reading, Pottsville, Scranton, and Wilkes-Barre. What is the capital ? 



XXIX. DELAWARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, AND 
WEST VIRGINIA. 


1. Delaware. —Delaware 


lies altogether in the Coastal 
Plain. It is poor in minerals, 
but rich in soil, and favored 


i. The strips being passed through a 
which cuts out disks, 

with a moderate climate. 


domestic purposes, for smelting, and for the production of 
steam po^ver. Anthracite coal is found in the eastern part of 
the State, and bituminous in the 
western. 

The petroleum of Pennsylvania 
yields the largest percentage of 
gasoline and illuminating oils, and 
is rich in paraffin. It is one of our 
chief articles of export, and is 
sent in ships fitted with tanks to 
nearly all parts of the world. 

The crude oil is pumped from the 
wells to the seaboard and lake 

citips tlivniicrli iron itinpis of Making gold eagles in the Philadelphia mint 
Clues iniOUj„n IIOII lUJie.S, OI J The gold bars are rolled tnto strips the thick- 

which there are several thousand ««>"■ 

miles. They spread through the oil region like a vast network. 

Some of the wells, when first bored, yielded several thousand barrels 
each day. The yield afterwards became less. 

In manufactures, Pennsylvania ranks as the second State in 
the Union and leads all the rest in the making of iron and steel, 
machinery, leather, and glass. The State is second in the manu¬ 
facture of textiles and refined petroleum. 

The soil and climate are well adapted to agriculture. The 
crops ®f grain, potatoes, and tobacco, as well as the grazing prod¬ 
ucts, are very important. 


It is therefore a fine fruit 3. Making the disks into gold eagles by stamp¬ 
ing them with the steel dies. 

country, and is specially famed 

for its peaches. Many people are employed in supplying the 
markets of Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore with fruits 
and vegetables. 

Wilmington, the principal city, is extensively engaged in man¬ 
ufacturing leather, and in building cars and steamships. Large 
gunpowder mills are located some miles outside the city. 


1 





































Pafi«s^ 


Chowd'^- 












Pof om a c 


iver 


m 

in| 









1 

T t 

1 

1 ^ 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 

SOUTHERN DIVISION 























































































































































































































MARYLAND, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, AND VIRGINIA. 




Dover is the capital. New Castle has extensive fruit-canning 
industries. 

2. Maryland. —The peninsula between the Delaware and 
Chesapeake Bays belongs in part to Delaware, in part to Mary¬ 
land, and in part to Virginia. It rises but little above the sea 
level, and is without mountains, lying wholly within the Coastal 
Plain. The winter climate of this “Eastern Shore,” as it is 
called, is one of peculiar mildness, due to the waters around it. 

Tobacco, fruit, and grain are leading agricultural products. 

The western part of the State is crossed by ranges of the Aj)- 
palachians, which abound in coal, the mining of which, therefore, 
constitutes an important industry in this part of the State. 


Naval Academy. Cumberland, in the coal regions, has exten¬ 
sive manufactures of iron and steel. 

Hagerstown manufactures automobiles, organs, lumber, furniture, 
and vehicles. Frederick is also a manufacturing town. 

4. District of Columbia. —The District of Columbia, so called 
in honor of Columbus, embraced originally an area of 100 square 
miles. It was ceded in 1790 to the United States, in part by Vir¬ 
ginia and in part by Maryland, for the purpose of establishing here 
the seat of the General Government. 

In 1846 Congress ceded back to Virginia her portion, so that now the 
District contains only about seventy square miles. 

It is governed by three Commissioners appointed by Congress. 



Baitinwre.—The oyster fleet which brings the famous oysters uy to the city. 


Chesapeake Bay is remarkable for its fish and game. The oysters, 
shad, and herring obtained in Cliesapeake Bay add millions of dollars 
a year to the wealth of the State. Its canvas-back ducks, terrapin, and 
' oysters are unsurpassed’. 

From the oyster-betl.s of this bay the West is largely supplied. Fish¬ 
ermen obtain the oystere from the bed of tlie bay with long-handled 
rakes called tongs. 

3. Cities. — Baltimore is one of the most important conmier- 
cial and manufacturing centers. It manufactures clotliing, cop¬ 
per, tin, and iron products, tobacco, and machinery, and has a 
large wholesale trade. Its chief exports are grain, meats, flour, 
cattle, lard, oil, and petroleum. 

Its position near the head ()f Chesajjeake Bay and the fact tlnit railroads 
connect it directly with the leading commercial cities of the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley make it one of the important outlets for the products 
of that region. Lines of steamers connect it with domestic and 
foreign ports. 

Baltimore is the seat of .Tohiis Hopkins University and Loyola 
College. 

Annapolis is the capital of the State, and the seat of the United States 


5. Washington, the seat of government of the United States, 
is situated in the I listrict, on the Potomac river. The site was 
selected by General Washington, and it is now one of the hand¬ 
somest capitals in the world. 



White House and grounds. The Capitol is in the distance. 


Its most important public buiblings are ; The Capitol ; the Con- 
gre.ssional Libi'ary ; the Treasury ; the State, War, and Navy De¬ 
partments; the White House, the home of the President ; the Smith¬ 
sonian Institution ; the National Museum ; the Agricultural Depart¬ 
ment ; ’ the Patent Office ; the Observatory. The Washington 
Monument is 555 feet high. 

6. Virginia. —Virginia, the oldest of the “ Original Thirteen, ” 
is sometimes called the “ Old Dominion. ” It has nearly the same 
area as Pennsylvania. 

The Allegheny Mountains and the Blue Ridge cross the State 
nearly parallel to each other. The country lying between them, 
varying in breadth from 3(> to 70 miles, is the celebrated Valley 
of Virginia. It is the garden-spot of the State. 


map studies.—N ame the States on this map. Wliat parts are 
mountainous ? Which State has no sea-coast ? What States nearly in¬ 
close Chesapeake Bay ? 

Delaware.—Has Delaware any mountains or large rivers ? Within 
what region, then, does it wholly lie ? What bay and river form the 
eastern boundary ? W^hat is the ca))ital of the State, and where is W^il- 
mington ? New Castle ? 

Maryland.—Describe the surface of the western part. The eastern 
l)art. What river separates Maryland from Virginia and West Virginia ? 
What great bay divides this State ? What important river enters the 
head of this bay ? 

What large city near the mouth of the Patapsco river (see small 
map) ? What is the capital ? Where is Frederick ? Hagerstown ? 

District of Columbia.—What river forms the southwestern bound¬ 
ary of the District ? What important city is located here ? 

Virginia.—What mountain range traverses Virginia ? What ranges 
on the western boundary ? What mountains divide Virginia and Ken¬ 


tucky ? What x’iver forms the northern boundary ? How does the east¬ 
ern portion of Virginia differ from the western ? What great bay inter¬ 
sects the eastern part of Virginia ? What two capes at its entrance ? 
What rivers enter this bay ? What three rivers break through the Blue 
Ridge? What is the capital ? Describe Lynchburg; Alexandria; Fred¬ 
ericksburg; Staunton; Winchester; Danville; Lexington. 

West Virginia.—What rivers form the western boundary ? What 
rivers flow into the Ohio ? What is the principal river in the State ? 
What is the only river rising in this State and flowing into the Atlantic ? 
Where does it break through the Blue Ridge ? What river joins it here ? 
What is the capital of the State, and where ? Where is Wheeling ? 
Parkersburg ? Martinsburg ? Huntington ? 

Routes of Travel.—On what bodies of water would you sail in 
going from Baltimore to Philadelphia ? How would you go in a steam¬ 
boat from Washington to Richmond? Norfolk to Wilmington ? An¬ 
napolis to Fredericksburg ? Wheelinj^ to Charleston ? What mountain 
ranges would you cross in going by rail from Richmond to Louisville ? 

















50 


VIEGINIA AND WEST VIEGINIA. 




The Liuray Caves, which, rival the Mam- 
mouth Cave of Kentucky in grandeur. 
Weyer’s Cave, and the NaturalBridge, 
with its singular archway of rock, are all 
in this valley, and are objects of great 
interest to tourists. 

Numerous rivers rise in the mountains and 
flow across the State into the Atlantic, 
Many of them, in the upper parts of their 
courses, furnish water-pow'er. 

Yirginia is rich in. coal, iron, manga¬ 
nese, and zinc, and is the third State in 
the production 
of tobacco. The 
other agricul¬ 
tural products 
are corn, wheat, 
live stock, dairy 
products, vegeta¬ 
bles,andpeauuts. 

It shares with 
Maryland the 
oyster-beds of 


ChesapeakeBay. 
7. Cities. 


ewport News, Virginia. The lower cut shows 
the steel framework of the ship which is upon the ''ways." The second 
cut shows the same ship ready for launching. When the props are knocked 
,1 ffut the ship slides dawn the ways into the water. Afterward the machin- 

Riclimond, the cry is put in and the vessel finished. 

capital and largest city, has extensive tobacco factories, boot and 
shoe factories, flour mills, and large foundries and machine shops. 
It is the chief railroad center of the State. 

Norfolk is the principal seaport, and has an important com¬ 
merce. Its harbor is not surpassed in the United States. At 
Portsmouth is a navy yard of the United States. 


forests yield the finest of timber. In the 
valleys are salt springs, petroleum weUs, 
and mineral waters. Among the last 
are the celebrated White Sulphur Springs. 

The manufacture of iron and steel is 
the most important industry. Other im¬ 
portant manufactures are lumber, leather, 
refined petroleum, and glass. The mining 
of soft coal is a very large industry. 

9. Cities —Wheeling, on the Ohio, 
is the largest city. It is surrounded by 
hills richly stored with bituminous coal, and is largely engaged in 
the manufacture of iron and steel and tobacco, Huntington has 
extensive car shops and a large trade in coal and lumber. Charles¬ 
ton, on the Kanawha River, is the capital. It is the center of the 
coal and lumber trade. 

Parkersburg, in the oil region, has large petroleum refineries, and ex¬ 
tensive manufactures of foundry and machine-shop products. 


A coal breaker in West Virginia. The coal comes from the mines in masses of varying sizes., 
It is here crushed, cleaned, and graded in sizes. It then drops into cars which carry it to market. 


Petersburg, Lynchburg, and Danville are important tobacco mar¬ 
kets and manufacturing cities. Roanoke is a center of won and steel 
manufactures. 

Newport News has great shipyards, where the largest steel battle¬ 
ships, cruisers, and merchant ships are built. It is also an important 
shipping port. 



A view of the harbor of Norfolk, showing the small boats loaded with fruits and vegetables 
bought in for shipment to Northern markets- 


Alexaii<lri<i, near W^asliington, is a place of considerable trade. The 
University of Virginia, one of our most noted seats of learning, is 
at Charlottesville. Mt. Vernon, a beautiful spot on the Potomac, 
was the home of Washington. 

8. West Virginia.—In 1863 the northwestern portion of the 
^‘Old Dominion” was organized as a separate State under the 
name of West Yirginia. 

The mountains of this State abound in iron and coal; the 


RevieAV Topics. —The surface and soil of Delaware. Its productions. 
Manufactures of Wilmington. The capital. Of what peninsula does Maryland 
occupy a part ? Chief products. For what is Chesapeake Bay remarkable ? 
Describe Baltimore ; Annapolis ; Cumberland ; Frederick ; District of Columbia. 
How governed? Describe Washington. What is Virginia sometimes called? 
What mountains cross this State ? Describe the valley. The caves. The rivers. 
Minerals. Productions. Oyster-beds. Describe Kichmond. Norfolk. Ports¬ 
mouth. Newport News. Petersburg. Lynchburg. Roanoke. Alexandria. 
Charlottesville. Mt. Vernon. West Virginia. Products. Mineral springs. 
Industries. Describe Wheeling. Huntington. Charleston. Parkersburg. 



Iron and steel tube works. West Virginia. 












































SOUTHERN STATES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 


51 


XXX. SOUTHERN STATES. 


State. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population, 

1920. 

Capitals. 

Chief Cities or Towns and 
their Population. 

North Carolina. 

52,426 

2,559,123 

Raleigh. 

Charlotte.. . . 

. 46,338 

.South Carolina.. 

30,989 

1,683,724 

(.’ohmit)ia. 

Chiirleston. . . 

. 67,9.57 

Georgia. 

59,265 

2,.895,832 

.Atlll.IltR 


200 616 

Florida. 

58,666 

968,470 

Tallahassee. . . 

Jacksonville.. 

. 91,558 

Alabama. 

51,998 

2,348,174 

Montgomery.. 

Birmingham.. 

. 178,806 

Mississippi. 

46,865 

1,790,618 

Jackson . 

Meridian . . . . 

. 23,399 

Louisiana. 

48,.506 

1,798,509 

Baton Rouge.. 

New Orleans.. 

.387,219 

Texas. 

265,896 

4,663,228 

Auistin. 

San .\ntonio. 

.161,379 

Arkansas. 

53,335 

1,752,204 

Little Rock. . . 

Little Rock . . 

. 65,142 

Tennessee. 

42,022 

2,337,885 

Nashville 

i\loinnhi« 


Oklahoma. 

70,057 

2,028,283 

Oklahoma City 

Oklahoma City 91,295 


1. Position, Size, and Population. —Tlie Southern States lie 
between the parallels of 25° ami 37° north. They embrace about 
the same breadth of latitude as the Middle Atlantic and the New 
England States together, and contain about one-fourth the area 
of the United States. 

The Population of the Southern States, however, is less dense 
than that of New England and the Middle Atlantic States. 




An oxUlying range of the Rocky Mountains in western Texas.—A sheep ranch. 


the palmetto, the magnolia, and the live oak, and next we come to 
a sandy belt overgrown with pines. 

On the Piedmont Plateau we find oaks and other deciduous 
trees which extend up the mountain sides. 

The swampy belt extends from Virginia to the Everglades of Florida, 
and along the shores of the Gulf except in Mississippi, where for some 
miles a low Iduff comes down to the water’s edge, to the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec. It is noted for its pendent mosses, parasites, and flow¬ 
ers. The mosses hang down in long and graceful festoons from the 
branches of the trees, imparting to the forest scenery a striking and 
picturesque feature. Among the flowers are the magnolia and the 
yellow jessamine, the loveliest of them all. 

The live oak of this region furnishes the most valuable timber for ship¬ 
building. The pine belt is famed for its timber, tar, pitch, rosin, and 
turpentine, which are known in commerce as naval stores. 

Naval stores are products of the long-leaf or pitch pine. The trees are 
“boxed” by cutting a deep notch near the ground and are “blazed ” 
by removing the bark above the box. The sap, which is raw turpen¬ 
tine, flows into the boxes, or into cups, and is taken out and distilled. 
During distillation a vapor passes off and is condensed into a liquid, 
called spirits of turpentine. The rosin left in the still is strained 
and, when cooled, becomes solid. 

Tar is obtained by heating sticks of pitch pine in a kiln. It flows out of 
the wood as a thick, black liquid. When boiled it becomes thicker and 
is known as pitch. 

Many of the pine trees are very tall and straight, and make the finest 
masts and spars for ships. Large numbers of them are sent to the 
tlockyards of France and England. 


2. Coast. —^The shores of the Southern States are bordered by 
a chain of long, narrow, sandy islands. Navigable inlets and 
passages occur here and there, but these are obstructed by sand¬ 
bars, which prevent the entrance of the largest vessels. 

3. Surface. —The surface of the Southern States resembles 
that of the Middle Atlantic States. Bordering the sea is the 
Coastal Plain, which in the Southern States attains its greatest 
breadth, being from 100 to 300 miles wide. (See map, p. 33. ) 

Next we have the Piedmont Plateau, and finally 
a mountain region embracing poi-tions of the 
Appalachian system. 

West of the Appalachian Mountains is the Cumberland 
Plateau, and beyond this lies the Mississippi Valley 
and the famous ^Mississippi river bottom or flood-plain, 
which, south of Memphis, is eighty miles wide. It 
is perfectly level and is liable to overflow. 

West of the Mississippi, the principal elevations are the 
Ozark 3Iouiitains in northwestern Arkansas, and 
the outlying ranges of the Rocky Alountaius in 
western Texas. 

4. Forests. — As we go from the sea inland, we 
cross first a belt of swamps covered with the cypress. 


5. Rivers and Lakes —The principal rivers of the Atlantic 
slope are navigable through the Coastal Plain to the hills of the 
Piedmont. The limits of navigation are marked by falls or rapids, 
which afford ample water power. The Mississippi and its south¬ 
ern tributaries drain a portion of these States, and furnish impor¬ 
tant water routes for the produce and merchandise of this section. 

6. Minerals. —In the mountainous parts of the Southern States 
are found coal, iron, copper, lead, gold, granite, and marble. Okla¬ 
homa and Alabama are richest in minerals. 

Coal is mined chiefly in Alabama, Tennessee, and Okla¬ 
homa; iron in Alabama, Tennessee, Georgia, and 
North Carolina; gold in North Carolina and Georgia; 
sulphur in Louisiana; petroleum and salt in 
Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Texas; marble in Georgia, 
Tennessee, and North Carolina. The whetstones 
of Arkansas and the gypsum of Texas and Okla¬ 
homa are among the very best. The phosphate 
deposits of Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina 
are the richest known. 

7. Climate and Occupations.— The 

climate of the northern portion of these 
States is mild, and is admirably adapted 



Pine forest in the Atlantic Coastal Plain.-~^ 
A turpentine orchard and still. 
























































SOLAR TIME-When It Is Noon ort the Meridian of Washington, 


ll;20 A. M. 


SOUTHERN' STATES. 

EASTERN DIVISION. 

MAP STUDIES.—Between what parallels of latitude 
are these States situated? What two form the northern 
boundary? What States border on the Atlantic Ocean? 
On the Gulf of Mexico? The Mississippi River? Which 
State has the longest coast-line? Which State is without 
seacoast? In what mountain ranges do nearly all the rivers 
of these States take their rise? What general directions 
have they? Trace the ridge of sandhills extending across 
these States. (It is shown by a light mountain line. It 
divides the upland and lowland of these States.) What 
kind of climate should you expect to find in these States? 
Which of these States has the warmest climate? When it 
is noon at Washington, what time is it at Columbus, 
Georgia? When it is noon at Columbus, what time is it at 
Columbia, South Carolina? 

North Carolina.—^What is the eastern boundary? 
"What mountain chain forms tlie western boundary? What 
mountain range crosses the State? Where is Mt. Mitchell? 
Where are Balsam Mountains? In what direction does the 
eastern part of the State slope? The western part? What 
mountains form the watershed of this State? Name the 
capes on the coast. What sounds in the eastern part? (A 
series of long, narrow, sandy islands separates these sounds 
from the sea.) Where is Roanoke Island? What river flows 
into the Atlantic near Cape Fear? What and where is the 
capital? Describe Charlotte. Wilmington. Winston-Salem. 
Asheville. Durham. Greensboro. 

Tennessee.—^What mountains separate Tennessee and 
North Carolina? What mountains cross Tennessee? What 
is the western boundary? Name the principal rivers. What 
river receives all the drainage of this State? "What large 
river crosses the State twice? What part of the State is 
traversed by the Cumberland? Are there any important 
rivers that flow into the Mississippi directly from this State? 
What is the capital? How is it situated? Describe Memphis. 
Knoxville. Chattanooga. Jackson. 

South Carolina.—What mountain range forms the 
northwestern boundary? What river the western? Name 
the chief rivers. What two form the Santee? What is the 
Wateree called in North Carolina? What river do the 
Saluda and Broad form? Where is the Great Pedee? What 
river east of the Pedee? Where is Edisto Island? St. Helena? 
Sullivan’s Island? What large city between the mouths 
of the Ashley and Cooper rivers? Name the capital. Describe 
Columbia. Spartanburg. Greenville. Anderson. Sumpter. 

Georgia.—What part is mountainous? Name one range 
in the northwest. Where is the Okee-fl-no'kee Swamp? 
What parallel forms the northern boundary? What river 
the eastern? What river a part of the western? What river 
a part of the southern? Describe the course of the Chatta¬ 
hoochee. The Flint. What two rivers unite to form the 
Altamaha (Al-ta-ma-haw')‘i What river south of the 
Savannah? Where is the Allapaha? Name the islands on 
the coast. Where is Savannah? What is the capital? 
Describe Augusta. Columbus. Athens. Macon. 

Florida.—What natural division of land is this State? 
In what part of the State are most of the towns? Describe 
the course of the St. John’s river. Of the Suwanee. Name 
the largest lake. Where are the Everglades? Name the 
capes on the coast. 'What bays on the Coast? Where are 
Florida Keys? Where is Key West, the most southerly town 
in the United States? DryTortugas? Where is the capital? De¬ 
scribe Jacksonville. Pensacola. Tampa. St. Augustine. 

Alabama.—What part of Alabama is mountainous? 
"What two rivers flow into Mobile Bay? What rivers form 
the Alabama? Describe the course of the Coosa. Of the Ala- 



ClarksvUJ®. 


.SpringfipUJ- 


tGallatir 


I 

nycrs^ilrg 

•TriiitorT 
fumbol3t^» *^^^**^” 


Leban 


iashvule 


Uckson 


Colunibto 


Shelby V 

TullaSom^ 






' Savannah 


Fayetteville. 


Pulaski* 


j Corinth* 


* &untsrville 
^ Scott 8 l>dr< 


' Senatobia 


Boone vilJe* 


I Tupelo 


imah 


Cjkolona 




-Aberdeen 
Wiest Point 


Grenada 


, Winona 
Greenwood 




Starkville 


Dolonv te 
Bessemer 


Loxingtdi 

Durant*^ 


"osciusko 


Blocton* 


iutaw 


Canton^ ^ 


\ Greensbo/ 
jP ilaiion 
^'^'nopoiig 


^jpksburg 
/jackson j 


Enterj 


ptaj Spring s, 


‘ort Gibson 


.^^Greenrille 


'Vesson ? J 

Sum„.it \HatlieSri 
/ %cCo.nl, 


erprree i 


^Woodviile 


Cerro Gordo 


rouge 


Eucbee Anna 


inton / 0*1 


as.Nt 

r Ros* 1 . 

o 

F 



in 



Xonjritude West 12® from '^V'ashington 



bama. Of the Tombig’bee, WTiat large river flows through 
the northern part of Alabama? W^hat river flows between 
Alabama and Georgia? Describe Birmingham. Mobile. The 
capital. 

Missi.s.sippi.—What rivers form the western boundary 
of Mississippi? Name the principal rivers of this State. 
"What two rivers enter the Mississippi near Vicksburg? 
Where is Mississippi Sound? What is the capital? On 
what river is it? Describe Meridian. Vicksburg. Natchez. 

Routes of Travel.—How would you go by steamboat 
from Wilmington, North Carolina, to Macon? From 
Jacksonville to Selma? Florence to Memphis? Jackson to 
Mobile? New Orleans to Nashville? 



< 

SOUTHERN PART 

OF 

FLORIDA 

Scale—Same as JaTge Me 


OR.Y TORTUGAS 



Xon^itude 


W. 












































































11:28 


11:36 


11:44 


11:53 


12 



Xongitude West 


froia Greenwich 


^oano^ Jf, 


Cumber 


Danville 


Stuap*: 


Weldon R^lurfreesb' 


Bristol 


Oxford 


■Reidsville 


Henderson 


Plymouth ^ I ^ 


®ens6, 


■anoxeA* 


raham 


Wtnsion-S'^lem 




I f.enolrJ^ 

^iokor>:-»^ta tes 


Wilson* 


RALEIGH 


W'ashlngl* 


Granville* 


SaJjsbury 


Loudon 


^■dfganton^ 


Asheville/^ 


Nevjy i' 

L Lincolnton | 
_^lielby\* 

V Gastoiiii 


Mo*oresvlUe 


Athens 


aiCape 

Haiteras 


Sanfo 


Goldshoro 


Concord 


o Henderson 


1 Ss Fayetteville^ 

lotte Hr? • 1 ^ 

WadesboroYRockinghfem 
Monroe Z'*• H^nletifr/ 

::x^ • Laujinblirg 

B3^*ittsviue 


Murph^ YV 


.YorkW 
Rock Hil 


Sfurtanburg* V 
a V •Grenville 
\* PiedAmnt 

Ander]<m Laurens 
Clinton 


Claytoi 


CherajT' 


Lookout 


Union 


pahlonega 


iber^on 


\ Darlingtonj'V 


Newberry 


;<»Marion 


Gainesville' 


'Canidej 


Greenwood 
k Abbeville 


Florence 


ihena 


Marietta* V / 

/ Decatur ^.> M 

/ -^ATLANTA ^lonroe 

Co\Srs ^Gr^. 

\ MUdiBon* 

Newmn 


Sumter 


Edgefield 


Washingt<^ 


Orang< 


Maiming 


ishoro 


.^>\Geol•getown 


.Wuremon^' 


<y i 


Griffin 


ktonton 


lerville 


\ y'j A Grange 
^ , J ' Dame 

^yettB/ 

nett* IWi^at Point 
>ellka 


Milled! 


Wayneshoro 


iSand^rsville 


SOUTHERN STATES 

EASTERN DIVISION 


Wardsborol 


Thomaston 


St Pleasant 


CHarlestoi^ 


Talbotton 


bum 

Phoeni: 

kegee 


&OI 8 TO I. 


!tateslx>ro7^® 


SCALE OP MILES 


lUrvbftUriUe 


^ST. HELENA I. 

So^al Sdttnd 


Duhlin* 


.wldnsville' 


.astinan 


iTYBEE IS. 


ufauia 


Cordele 


Dawson 


Aftanti 

sjrafeVj 


Cathbert 


Fitzgerald 


Jesup< 


WaycToss 


Tiftoh, 


runtwick 


^T. SIMONS l< 


MoultrieV 


^ i/ni 'ersiij 

'• Park 


ihridg^ 


Pnil*^ Statit' 
McPbersoa 

Luetl* Part' 


Quitman 


Xnoa^d.' 

ATLANTA 

AND VICINITY 
Scale, S miles—/ iuch 


^Thomaavilie 


Fernandilaa 


[amelia I, 


Monticello 


Quin^- 


Madison 


Liv i 
Oa« 


Oaiubow 


VICINITY OF 

SAVANNAH, GA. 

Settle, i2 rniles^/ inc^ 


St. Mark's 


Cove Sprs, 


St.Au/?ustine 
\ANASTkTIA I. 


‘‘^•ppaX/^cTie.e 

Bay 


Gainesville 


CAffAL 


, ^'^T.oeORQES 
C ipe St.George 


Talatka' 


Jhinn's 


^EpenvANS 

-y I- 

♦FT SUMTER 
ACumm/ngS 
m Point ^ : 




Bronson 


\X,George 
\ Dexter-L, 


Cedar KeysJ 


Ocala* 


Millers 


Daytona 


<? ? 0 >.*I>eLanc 

ivai-eij <sv Ehterprisi i 

Apopka Orlando^i 

® ^ O ,,*ee 


VICINITY OF 

CHARLESTON 

Scale, /g miles-/ inch 


Canaveral 


Tokopolealiff^^ 


lAAEMPHIS 

I TENN. 


IVdaAi 


St Pet jrs1 


JndtaA 
\ Inlet 


Istokptjga L, 


.Jo/ieseT^ir 


C.Sablel 


AMtUmp 


Ponta Oorda 


Caloo^ 


NASHVll 

TENN 


SANIBEL 


miles —f fncA 


Washington 




























































































































































































































































































54: 


SOUTHERN STATES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 




to the cultivation of grain, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. That 
of the southern part is semi-tropical. This section is well 
watered and suited to the growth of sugar cane, cotton, rice, and 
tropical fruits. 

The copious supply of moisture enjoyed by this portion of the country 
contributes to make it the very first among the cottoii-groAving 
regions of the v?orld. In a climate that is less humid, as, for 
example, that of India, cotton will grow and yield abundantly, but 
the fiber is short, and this renders it far more difficult to spin into 

yarn and weave into cloth. 

The winds from the Gulf bring the 
frequent summer raijis. Hence 
w’e find in the soulhei'n parts 
of Alabama, Mississippi, and 
Louisiana a greater annual 


nual crop, now about sixteen million bales, is about three-fourths of 
the world’s supply. 

Cottonseed was formerly considered to be of little value except for plant¬ 
ing, and the great quantity not required for that purpose went to waste. 
It was found, however, that a valuable oil, resembling olive oil, could 
be pressed from the seed. It was also found that the cake which was 
left after the oil was extracted could be ground and sold for cattle feed 
and fertilizers. Cottonseed oil mills are now numerous throughout 
the cotton belt. 

Witlain the past few years the attention of the people of the Southern 
States has been lai-gely directed to the inamifacture of cotton. 
Extensive mills have been erected, and the production of cotton goods 
has steadily increased. The number of mills has more than doubled 
in ten years. 

The advantages which attract the cotton-spinner to this region are 
these; (1) the raw material is produced at his very doors, and he is 
therefore in a large measure saved the expense of transportation; and 
(2) numerous streams descending to the sea from the mountains fur¬ 
nish unlimited water-power. 

Commerce.—The commerce of these States consists chiefly in 
the sale of cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, lumber, coal, iron, petro 

leum, sulphur, naval stores, cot¬ 
ton cloth, cottonseed oil, and 
live stock. The shipping of 
early fruits and vegetables to 
northern markets is also an im 
portant industry. The people 


Photographs of a cotton mill in Columbia, S. 
thovnng four steps in the manufacture of cotton 
goods, 1. The carding machine straightens the 
hher' and rolls the cotton, which is gathered 
'.nto cans, 

rainfall than that of any 
other portion of tlie country 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 


Th.6 niclioritV or pooplo in. the 2 . The cans containing the rolls which have been 
A 1 combed are placed in front of this machine. Five 

6nc’a,O’0cl rolls are drawn out at one time, and 

^ 0 ^* 0 afterward twisted together to make a cord whichis 

Jifanufacturing, 


Southern States are 


in agriculture. 


mining, and commerce are the other important industries. 

Influence of Inventions.—The industrial pursuits of the 
Southern States were very largely determined by the invention 
of the cotton-gin, the spinning-jenny, and the power-loom. 


One hundred years ago the cultivation of cotton in the Southeim 
States was confined to a small patch on each farm, capable of pro¬ 
ducing a few pounds only. The seeds were picked from the cotton 
by hand, and the cotton spun and woven by the women of the family 
into “home-spun.” 

The cotton-gin removes the seed from the cotton. In a few minutes 
one can do as much work as a whole family could do in a week. A 
spinning-jenny and a power-loom can spin and weave as much 
cotton in a day as a woman could in a year. These inventions made 
cotton planting the great industry of the Southern States. The an- 


3. The spools are placed on this machine. Here 
the cords from six spools are twisted together to 
make one thread. 


Shipping cotton by railroad. - Freight cars loaded with cotton at the station at HousLon, 
Texas, during the busy season. 


of these States buy fine textiles, 
clothing, boots, shoes, hats, fur¬ 
niture, agricultural implements, 
silverware, and other manufac¬ 
tured articles, and often flour, , ^ ^ , 

4. On the cylinders shown here are wound certain 

corn, and meat from the other <*rea<is c<ijierf«;ie«arp,U'Aiie ij«ie«poo/so/Mrearf 

’ are placed in the shuttles which move backuard 

States. Numerous railways and forward, inung the varrs avd making cloth. 

, , . re 1 1 [Copyriglited by Cndei wood & Underwood, 1904.1 

navigable rivers aftord ample 

means of transportation, within and beyond the Southern States, 
while numerous steamship lines, sailing from Atlantic and Gulf 
ports, provide communication with other ports in the United 
States and various foreign ports. The leading imports are raw 
sugar, coffee, and tea; bananas, pineapples, and other tropical 
fruits from Mexico, Central and South America; also manufac¬ 
tured goods. 

Review Topics. —Name the ten Southern States. Compare in size with the 
New England and Middle Atlantic States. In population. Coast line. Harbors. 
How does .the surface resemble that of the Middle Atlantic ? How do the moun¬ 
tains divide the States east of the Mi.ssissippi ? Into what do the rivei's flow ? 
What elevations west of the Mississippi ? Describe the forest belts. Swampy belt. 
Live-oak forests. Pine belt. How far are the rivers navigable ? Describe the 
Mississippi and its southern tributaries. What minerals in the mountains ? In 
Alabama and Tennessee ? In Georgia and North Carolina ? In Louisiana ? 
Arkansas ? Dther Southern States ? Climate ? What makes the Southern States 
a cotton-growing region ? Describe the rainfall in some of the Gulf States. The 
occupations. What inventions have affected the industries ? What effect did they 
produce ? The cotton crop. Cottonseed products. Cotton manufacture in the 
Southern States. Commerce. Principal exports. Chief imports. Transportation. 





































NOKTII CAROLINA AND TENNESSEE. 


55 


XXXI. NORTH CAROLINA 
AND TENNESSEE. 

1. North Carolina and Ten¬ 
nessee. —North Ccaroliiia, tlie 
“Old North State,” and Tennes¬ 
see are mainly between the same 
parallels of latitude. Except in 
the Coastal Plain of North Caro¬ 
lina, the industries of the two 
States are similar. 

Both States are admirably 
adapted to the growth of grain, tobacco, flax, and hemp. Tlie 
grape, fig, and peach, with other orchard fruits, are raised, as well 
as melons, peanuts, and sweet potatoes. Cotton is extensively 
cultivated exeept in the mountain sections. 

The territory constituting Tennessee once belonged to North Carolina, 
and was settled chiefly by emigrants from that State. Daniel Boone, 
the celebrated hunter, who led the way for settlers, both into Ken¬ 
tucky and Tennessee, was a North Carolinian. 



Selling tobacco at auction in WinstoU’-Salem, N. C. This scene is called a tobacco break. 


2. North Carolina. —The highest mountains east of the Mis¬ 
sissippi are in this State. The highest of these is Mt. Mitchell. 
There are 43 peaks 6,000 feet and upwards in height, and 82 be¬ 
tween 5,000 and 6,000. 

The plateau here is over 2,000 feet above the sea level, and its dry air 
and beautiful scenery have made it famous as a health resort. 

North Carolina is an important manufacturing State. It ranks 
second in the United States in the manufacture of cotton goods. 
The Piedmont section is dotted with cotton mills. The State 
stands second in the Union in the value of its tobacco crop and 
third in manufactured tobacco. Large crops of corn, wheat, and 
peanuts are grown. 

The eastern section abounds in cypress swamps and forests of 
long-leaf or pitch pine. The cutting of lumber, cypress staves 
and shingles are leading industries. The gathering of naval 
stores is also carried on in this part of the State. 

In the Coastal Plain some rice is grown, and early fruits and 
vegetables are cultivated for Northern markets. The sounds and 
rivers of this region abound in fish. The fishing industries are of 
great value. 

In the Piedmont and mountain regions, gold, ii-on, coal, granite, 
talc, mica of the finest quality, and precious stones are found. 

3. Cities.—Raleigh» tl>e capital, is a manufacturing center. 
Charlotte, the largest city, manufactures clothing, cotton goods. 


cottonseed oil, lumber, and ma¬ 
chinery, and is a railroad and 
educational center. 

Wilininprton, the chief port, man¬ 
ufactures lumber, cottonseed oil, and 
flour, and exports naval stores, lumber, 
and cotton. Asheville is a famous 
health resort. Greensboro has ma¬ 
chine shops, lumber mills, and a big to¬ 
bacco trade. Winston-Salem and 
Durham are famous for the manu¬ 
facture of tobacco. New Bern is 
noted for its trade in early vegetables. 

4. Tennessee consists of three sections: East, Middle, and 
West Tennessee. East Tennessee lies east of the Cumberland 
Mountains. It is mountainous, and ricli in coal, iron, copper, and 
phos 2 )hate rock. Its marbles are of great beauty and variety. 
Its valleys are famous for their rich soil and beautiful scenery. 
The great valley of eastern Tennessee is really a continuation of 
the valley of Virginia. 

Middle Tennessee is a rolling country, extending from the 
C'umberland Mountains westward to the Tennessee river. It ex¬ 
cels in the production of wheat, corn, and tobacco. Here, in the 
blue-grass region, are celebrated stock farms. 

West Tennessee is comparatively level. It is the great cotton¬ 
growing section of the State. 

5. Cities. — Nashville, the capital, on the Cumberland river, is 
the second city in the State. It manufactures flour, fertilizers, 
lumber, and tobacco, and has a considerable commerce. The Pea¬ 
body Normal College, Vanderbilt University, and other important 
educational institutions are here. 

Memphis, on the Mississippi river, the first city in the State, is 
the greatest inland cotton market, and a large producer of hard¬ 
wood lumber and cottonseed products. Much flour is made here. 
A fine cantilever railway bridge spans the river. 

Chattanoogra, on the Tennessee river, is a very important railroad 
center. It manufactures flour, lumber, cotton goods, and furniture,and has 
large iron furnaces and foundries. Knoxville is the commercial center of 
east Tennessee, at the head of na\dgation of the Tennessee river. Jackson 
manufactures lumber. Clarksville is engaged in the tobacco trade. 



The Mississippi river front at Memphis. Tenn., looking up the river. On the left are small steamboats. 
In the center is a wharf-boat which takes the place of a wharf, and beyond are larger sMe-wheelrd 
steamers. It is impossible to build wharves here because of the rising and falling of the river. Mer¬ 
chandise is received on the wharf-boat or piled on the landing, as you can see in the picture. 

Review Topics.— Compare North Carolina ami Tennessee in latitude and 
pi-oducts. Who lirst settled Tennessee ? Describe the mountains. The chief in¬ 
dustries. Where is rice ijrown ? Where is the mining region ? Describe Albemarle 
Sound. The capital. The chief cities. Divisions of Tennessee. Chief cities. 



View on the Asheville plateau, showing the mountains which tower above it and the French Broad river 
that cuts its way through the mountains into Tennessee. 

















56 


SOUTH CAROLINA AND GEORGIA. 


XXXII. SOUTH CAROUIXA AXD GEORGIA. 



East Battery at Charleston. 


1. South Carolina and Georgia. —South Carolina and Georgia 
resemble each other in physical features, climate, and industries. 
They both front on the Atlantic, and slope from the mountains to the 
ocean. The coast of Georgia, with much of that of South Carolina, 
is fringed by many islands, between which and the mainland are chan¬ 
nels forming part of the inland waterway along the Atlantic coast. 

Both states include parts of the Atlantic Plain, the Piedmont 
Plateau, and the Appa¬ 
lachian Highland, while 
in Southern Georgia the 
Atlantic Plain merges 
with the Gulf Plain. 

2. South Carolina. 

—In the manufacture of 
cotton goods. South 
Carolina ranks second 
among the Southern 
States, and third in the 
United States. Cotton 
and corn are grown in all 
parts of the state. Truck farms are numerous. Hog and cattle 
raising is a profitable and increasing industry. 

3. Cities. — Charleston is the principal city and chief seaport 
of the State. It is an important rice market, and ships large 
quantities of cotton, vegetables, and naval stores. Near the city 
are vast deposits of phosphate rock which is used in the manufac¬ 
ture of fertilizers. 

Columbia, the capital, on the Congaree river at its falls, is an 
important manufacturing city. It is noted for its beauty, and is 
the seat of the University of South Carolina. 

Greenville and Spartanburg are important cotton manufacturing- 
cities. 

The Winthrop Female Normal and Industrial College is at Rock Hill; 
the Clemson Agricultural College is at Fort Hill, the old home of 
John C. Calhoun; and the South Carolina Military Academy is at 
Charleston. 

4. Georgia. —Georgia is one of the leading Southern States 
in manufacturing and commerce, and in the production of cotton, 
lumber, naval stores, melons, fruits, and vegetables. 

North Georgia produces the finest of wheat and oats. Rice flourishes 
in the lowlands along the coast; cotton, the leading staple, in the 
central and southwestern parts of the State; corn grows every¬ 
where. The great pine forests yield valuable timber and naval stores. 

The gold mines of this State were considered very rich before 
crold was found in California, but their output is now very small. 


Georgia granite and marble are famous. Coal, iron, and mineral 
paint are mined in the northern part of the State. 

5. Cities. —Atlanta, the capital and largest city, is at the 
point where railroads must pass in coming around the mountain 
barrier. This makes it a great railroad and trade center. It 
ranks first in the State in manufactures. A school of technology 
is located here. 

Savannah is the chief seaport, and an important commercial 
center. It exports cotton, rice, naval stores, and lumber. 

Augusta, on the Savannah, and Columbus, on the Chattahoo¬ 
chee, have ample water power and extensive cotton mills. Macon 
has three colleges, cotton mills, and a large wholesale trade. 

Rome has an important I'iver trade. Brunswick sliips cotton, 
lumber, and naval stores. The State University and the State Normal 
School are at Athens, and tlie Georgia Normal and Industrial College 
is at Milledgeville. 

Review Topics.—How does South Carolina compare with Georgia in 
physical features? Manufacture of cotton goods. Agricultural products. De¬ 
scribe Columbia. Charleston. What minerals has the State? In what is Georgia 

prominent? What part pro¬ 
duces wheat and oats? Rice? 
Cotton? What are the forest 
products? The minerals? De¬ 
scribe Savannah. Atlanta. 
Augusta. Columbus. Macon. 
Rome. Brunswick. Where 
is the State University? 

XXXIII. FUORIHA, 
ALABAMA, AXD 
MISSISSIPPI. 

1. Florida.—Florida 
has no mountains. It 
is dotted with beautiful 
lakes and springs. 

The Everglade.s in South Florida may be described as a great shallow 
lake with long grass growing from the bottom. The surface is 
studded with islands, upon which are dense jungles of tropical trees 
and plants. 

Florida fronts both on the Gulf of Mexico and on the Atlantic. 
It has so mild and delightful a tvinter climate that thousands of 
visitors spend the winter here each year. Its tourists’ hotels 
are among the finest in the world. 

The soil is adapted to the cultivation of cotton, sugar, 
and rice. 

Florida is famous for its oranges and other tropical fruits. 



View ot the center of St. Augustine, Fla., shotving the plaza and the 
immense hotels for winter visitors. 



View of naval stores on the wharf at Savannah, Ga., awaiting shipment. Savannah ships more 
naval stores than any other port in the world. 

























FLOKIDA, ALABAMA, AND MISSISSIPPI. 


57 




An important industry is the cultivation of early fruits and vege¬ 
tables for Northern markets. In the southern parts of the State 
Sisal hemp, cocoanuts, pineapples, and guavas are grown. 

The live oak abounds here, and the sponge fisheries are valuable. 
The phosphate deposits are the richest and largest yet discovered. 

Florida is of limestone formation. The southern part is bordered by 
numerous coral-formed islands called Keys. 

2. Cities. — Jacksonville, the largest city, ships pine lumber, 
oranges, and vegetables, by 
water and by rail, to North¬ 
ern cities. 

Tampa, the second city, 
ranks next to New York in 
the import of tobacco ; it 
manufactures cigars and 
has steamship lines to Key 
West, Havana, and other 
ports. Pensacola, the chief 
city in foreign commerce, 
has a fine harbor, and ships 
pine lumber, naval stores, 
and cotton. Key West, on one of the 


m: 


Keys, manufactures the famous Key 
W est cigars from tobacco grown in Cuba. 
Sponge fishing is an unportant industry. 

Tallahassee is the capital. St. Augus¬ 
tine, founded by the Spanish in 1565, 
is the oldest town in the United States. 


3. Alabama and Mississippi.— 

With the exception of the mountain 
region of north Alabama, these two 
States belong to the Gulf Plain, which 
is sometimes broken by hills made by the 
action of water. Corn and oats are raised for home use. Cotton 
is the great agricultural product. In the southern sections early 
vegetables and fruits are grown for Northern markets. 

In the southern part of both States are extensive forests of 
long-leaf pine from which lumber, naval stores, and charcoal are 
manufactured. Both States have cotton factories and many 
cotton-seed-oil mills. 

4. Alabama.—Alabama ranks first in the South and third 
in the Union in the production of iron, and sixth in the output of 
coal. Kich deposits of iron ore, coal, and lime lie near together, 
and supply the furnaces, rolling mills, and coke ovens that dot the 
mineral district. The Alabama and Tombigbee rivers furnish a 
waterway to the Gulf for the coal, iron, and cotton of the State. 

6. Cities.— Mobile, the only seaport, exports cotton, lumber, 
naval stores, and iron. It imports bananas and other tropical 
fruits. 

Birmingham, the largest city of the State, is the center of the 
coal and iron region, and has coke ovens, furnaces, and rolling 
mills. It manufactures steel rails, engines, boilers, machinery, 
cotton gins, and cotton. Many railroads center there. 

Montgomery, the capital, is a railroad center and river port. 
It manufactures fertilizers, cotton, cotton-seed oil, and lumber, 
and has a large trade. 


Anniston has iron and steel works, machine shops, and cotton fac¬ 
tories. Selma is an important point for the shipment of cotton. 
Bessemer is an iron and steel manufacturing center. Gadsden 
has various manufactories. The University of Alabama is located at 

Tuscaloosa. 

6. Mississippi.—Missis¬ 
sippi lacks mineral wealth, 
but is rich in cotton and 
in forests of hard wood in 
the Delta, and of yellow 
pine in the southern hills. 

The most important 
manufactures are lumber, 
cotton-seed oil and meal, 
naval stores, and cotton 
goods. 

7. The Mississippi- 
Yazoo Delta.—There is no richer land 
in the world than that of the Delta. It 
is a part of the flood-plain of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, and is protected from overflow 
by embankments called levees, which are 
built along that river from the bluffs 
above Vicksburg to the bluffs near 
the Tennessee line. A bluff just east 
of the Yazoo river forms the eastern 
rim of the Delta. The Delta embraces 
about one-seventh of the State. The 

Making j^iron in Alabama. First cut shows the mi^ where the ore COttOn ffrOWn here ranks next tO the 
18 dug. Second -is the outside of the furnace, showxng the cars by means ® 

of which ore^ lime, and charcoal are carried to the top of the furnace and ir» xroln^ 

dropped in. When heated, the charcoal unites with the impurities in the ore loloiUU. uUllUIl 111 VdiUt?. 

ana the pure iron runs down to the bottom of the furnace. Third shows the q -- -myr 4.V. l a 

bottom of the furnace. Every six hours the furnace is opened and the melted O* OlwlSS*—MCriCliail> t/ll6 l8.rg6St 

iron runs down to the little channels made in the sand, as shown in the 

picture. Each central channel is called a sow, and the Ixtt'e ones are coiled citV. IS Ell important I'ailroad and COID* 
pigs; iron cast in this way is called pig-iron. ’ * 

mercial center. Its leading manufac¬ 
tures are cotton and lumber products, and fertilizers. Jackson, 
the capital, is a great railroad and business center. It is an im¬ 
portant cotton market and has large cotton-seed-oil mills. Vicks¬ 
burg, the chief river port, and Natchez are both situated on the 
bluffs of the Mississippi. They are important cotton markets and 
manufacture lumber and cotton-seed oil. 

Hattiesburg is an agricultural and lumbering center. Greenville, 
Columbus, and Laurel are cotton-manufacturing centers. Biloxi 
has extensive shrimp fisheries and ranks next to Baltimore in the oyster 
product. Yazoo City has large cotton interests. The University of Mis¬ 
sissippi is at Oxford, the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Stark- 
ville, and the Industrial Institute and College for Girls at Columbus. 


ice factory nearby. The ice ts being put into the ears to preserve the fruit and vegetables on 
their way to Northern oUieM to he sold 



























58 


LOUISIANA. 






XXXIV. LOUISIANA AND ARKANSAS. 


1. Louisiana. —Louisiana, so called in honor of Louis XIV. 
of France, was settled by French and Spanish Colonists. The 
descendants of the former are called French Creoles. Louisiana 
was purchased by the United States from France in 1803, chiefly 
to secure for the commerce of the inland States a free outlet to 
the sea through the Mississippi. 

2. The depression of the land is one of the marked physical 

features of this State. Fully half of the State lies in the flood- 
plains of the Mississippi and Red rivers. From the mouth of the 
Red river to the Gulf the level of the Mississippi river and its 
outlets — called 7 bayous (Ji'ooz) 

—is higher than that of the ad¬ 

jacent country. 

This makes it nec¬ 
essary to build 
levees or embank¬ 
ments along tlie 
Mississippi to [)i-e- 
vent the flooding 
of the lower lands. 

In the lowlands 
are canebrakes and 
swampy forests. 


Making sugar in Louisiana. The cane comes 
down the slide and the juice is crushed out 
by rollers. 


The drainage in this depressed area, therefore, is 

from and not toward the watercourses. The people speak of 
going up to the river instead of going down to it. 

This depression exposes the country to fearful floods whenever a break 
occurs in any part of the levee. Such a break is called a crevasse. 


The juice is boiled to a thick syrup in each of 
these three vessels, called the triple effect.” 


View of a levee in New Orleans. Notice the steamboat on the Mississippi river, the steamships 
and sailing vessels lying next to the levee. On the levee are cotton, staves, and other merchandise 
which are to be load^ on the ships. Notice the freight cars on the left. 


View on the levee on the Mtsstsstypi, The river cannot be seen. The water that you see is called 
back-water, and a steamboat is bringing men to repair the levee. A roctd is at the right, and 
the home of a planter can be seen in the distance. 

3. Louisiana is the first of the Southern States in commerce 
and second in manufactures. It produces most of the cane-sugar 
raised in the United States, more rice than any other State, and 
much cotton. Sugar-cane and rice are produced 
in the lowlands, while cotton is grown chiefly in the 

uplands. Petro¬ 
leum and sulphur 
are obtained in the 
southwest. 

d'he chief manu¬ 
factures are sugar, 
lumber,rice,cotton- 
seed oil, and jute 
bags. 

4. Cities.—New 

third in the United 
commerce, 
popula¬ 
tion, commerce, and manufactures. It is one of the greatest cotton 
markets in the world, and one of the greatest for sugar and rice. 
It exports chiefly cotton and grain. It imports raw sugar, coffee, 
tropical fruits, and other merchandise. It has sugar refineries, rice 
mills, foundries, and other factories. 

The levee here is very wide and upon it may be seen bales of cotton, bar¬ 
rels of sugar and rice, sacks of coffee, and boxes of other merchandise 
ready for shipment. On one side of the levee are wharves where 
steamships, sailing vessels, and steamboats lie, one after another, 
for more than five miles; here also are grain elevators and shipyards. 

Tulane University and other higher institutions of learning are 
located in this city. 

Shreveport is an important railroad and trading center. It is the 
chief distributing point of north Louisiana. 

Baton Rouge {ha'tun roozh), the capital, is an important city. The 
State University is located here. Alexandria and Lake Charle.s 
manufacture cottonseed oil and lumber. New Iberia has mills for 
hulling and cleaning rice. 


Orleans ranks 

States in its Centrifugal mills. They revolve rapidly, throw- foreign 
ing off molasses through a fine wire netting, 
and first in theSouth in 


MAP STUDIES.—In which of these States are lakes most numer¬ 
ous? Which has no seacoast? Which has the longest coast line? 

Arkansas.-^What portion is mountainous? Boundaries. What 
large river crosses this State? Describe the course of the White River. 
Name the capital. Describe Helena. Hot Springs. Pine Bluff. Fort 
Smith. 

Louisiana.—What rivers separate Louisiana from Mississippi? What 
river flows across Louisiana? Into what river does the Washita flow? 
What river and lake between Louisiana and Texas? What river and 
bayou enter Grand Lake? Where is Lake Poiitchartrain? Grand Lake? 
Name the bays.on the coast. How many mouths has the Mississippi? 
Describe New Orleans Shreveport. Baton Rouge. 


Oklahoma. — What river forms most of the southern boundary? What 
rivers cross this State? Describe the capital. Muskogee. Tulsa. Enid. 
.McAlester. Shawnee. Guthrie. 

Texas.—What bounds Texas on the north? On the southwest? 
What portion is mountainous? Where are the Apache Mountains? The 
Llano Estacado? What rivers form part of the boundaries? What 
river flows into Galveston Bay? Describe the Brazos. The Colorado. 
What river enters Sabine Lake? San Antonio Bay? Corpus Christi 
Bay? What tributary of the Rio Grande crosses the western part of the 
State? Name the bays on the coast. Tlie islands. Describe the capital. 
Galveston. Houston. Dallas. San Antonio. Port Worth. Waco. 
Sherman. Denison. Marshall. El Paso. 



























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60 


ARKANSAS AND TEXAS. 




XXXV. TEXAS AND OKLAHOMA. 


1. Texas.—Texas is the largest State in the Union. It is 
about thirty-two times the size of Massachusetts. Its industries 
and transportation facilities have been rapidly developed by the 
unbounded energy of its people. Texas now has more miles of 
railway than any other State. 

It was once a part of Mexico, but won its independence by the victory 
at San Jacinto in 1836. In 1845 it was annexed to the United States. 


Vieui) of the city of Hot Springs^ Arkansas. 

6. Arkansas. —Arkansas is rich in its productive soil and in 
its forests and minerals. Agriculture is. the principal industry, 
and the chief products are cotton, corn, and rice. 

Eastern Arkansas consists of lowlands which are a part of 
the Mississippi flood-plain. These lands are protected from over- 
iflow by levees like those in Louisiana. 

Western Arkansas is rugged, being crossed by the ridges 
of the Ozark Mountains. It is a fine graz¬ 
ing country and is largely devoted to 
farming and stock raising. Mining is 
also a growing industry. Coal, iron, lead, 
zinc, and other minerals abound, and 
there are extensive quarries of sand¬ 
stone and limestone. Arkansas leads in 
the production 
of bauxite, a 
fine clay from 
which the metal 
aluminium is ob- 
tained. The 
oilstone and 
whetstone quar¬ 
ries are the best 
in the world. 


Texas ranks first in the Union in stock raising, first in the 
production of cotton, and first in the manufacture of cottonseed 
products. About one-fourth of our entire cotton crop is grown 
there. It ranks higli in wool growing and also in its yield ol 
petroleum. 

Southern Texas is coast prairie. Eastern 
belt. Next 


Prairie, the 


The hard w'ood 

the State con- 


Texas is a timber 
comes the Black 
famous ‘ ‘ black 
waxy” land,and 
west of this is 
the Grand Prai¬ 
rie, a great 
grazing region. 
Bej'ond are the 
Great Plains and 
ranges of the 
Rocky Moun- 

Afterthe oil is pressed /.ard cakes are left f QinQ W h P r A 
about an inch thick. These are ground into cot- 5 ” 

lonseed meal, trhich is packed into sacks and -mo in folic 

sold for fertilizer or for food for stock. 11 lilt? Xd.111 icillS. 

Its agricultural products include cotton, corn, 

oats, other grains, and fruits; rice and sugar 

on the coast prairies, and wheat in the north. 

Meat packing, petroleum refining, flour mill- 

seedsare then hulled, and the meat Is boiled ing, I’ice cleaning, and making lumber, cotton- 
andplacedinimmensehydraul cpresses. They ° o o 

press out the oil, whici is afterward refined. y(.ed oil, aiid machinery are important industries. 


forests of 
tain the fin- 
walnut, 
timber 


4- cottonseed oil at Sherman, Tex. ine iim , 

6Sl DOU.16S OT ig removed from the seed and made into rolls which is 03.K 
hickory, Six^^^old for hatting. 

to be found in the country. The value of the hard wood lumber cut 
from these forests exceeds that of any other State. In the western 
part of the State are numerous hot? springs, celebrated for their 
medicinal qualities and much resorted to by invalids. 

6. Cities. —Little Rock, the capital and chief city, is a center of 
trade, and manufactures cottonseed products and lumber. 


Coal, quicksilver, salt, gypsum, granite, sandstone, limestone, 
marble, iron, and other useful minerals are found. 

2. Cities. —San Antonio, the oldest and largest city in the 
State, is the most important business center of western Texas. 

Dallas is a shipping point for agricultural machinery and sup¬ 
plies, and leads the cities of the South in tlie manufacture of 
saddlery and harness. 

Hou.ston is a leading railroad and manufacturing center, and 
the largest cotton market in the State. 


Pine Bluff, an important shipping point on the edge of the Flood 
Plain, manufactures lumber and cottonseed oil. Fort Smith is in j 
the center of the coal regions at the head of navigation on the 
Arkansas River. Helena is an important shipping point for cotton 
on the Mississippi. 

Hot Springs is a progressive, growing city. Here are the famous 
mineral springs which make it a winter and summer resort. Eureka 
Springs is also a health resort. 

Review Topics.—Louisiana; how acquired and settled? What is a 
jrevasse? In what does Louisiana rank first? Where do we get our upholstery 
moss? Mineral resources. Manufactures. New Orleans. Shreveport. Baton 
Rouge. Other cities. Name the resources of Arkansas. What is its principal 
industry? Its chief products? Describe eastern Arkansas. Western Arkansas. 
The mineral resources. The hot springs. The qhief center of trade. Important 
towns. 



l iew of the harbor at Galveston. showing the wharves where the railroads bring cotton and product 
for export. In the distance can be see?i a breakwater built by the Government to protect the harbor. 










































OKLAHOMA.—THE CENTRAL STATES. 


61 


Galveston, the chief port, has one of the best harbors on the 
Gulf. It ranks second in the Union in value of exports. These 
are chiefly cotton, hides, wool, and Avheat. Fort Worth is an 
important railroad center and has meat-packing and rice-cleaning 
establishments. Austin, the capital, is a beautiful city. Waco, 
in the cotton belt, manufactures cottonseed oil. 

El Paso, Laredo, and Brownsville, on the Rio Grande, have an im¬ 
portant and growing trade with Mexico. Oenison is a shipping 
point; Sherman has large flour mills; and Marshall, railroad shops. 
Beaumont is the center of famous oil-fields, and has rice and lumber 
mills. Paris is an important shipping point for grain and cotton. 
Temple is noted for cottonseed oil. Palestine, Tyler, and Cle¬ 
burne have large railroad shops, cottonseed oil mills, and flour mills. 
San Angelo is a health resort. 



In the Ouachita Valley, Oklahoma. 


3. Oklahoma.—In 1890 Oklahoma was separated from the 
Indian Territory and organized as a territory. As soon as the 
public lands were thrown open for settlement thousands of peo¬ 
ple flocked in. Houses were built and cities were established in a 
few days’ time. In 1907 the territories Avere again united to form 
the new State of Oklahoma. This State has a mild climate and 
raises large crops of corn, cotton, and potatoes. Wheat, oats, 
and other grains are also groA\m. In the Avestern part of the 
State grazing is the leading industry, this State ranking high in the 
number of cattle on the ranches. 

Much coal is mined in the southeastern part of the State, and 
the petroleum fields in the northeast yield abundantly. Fine 
granite is quarried and there are valuable deposits of gypsum. 

The Indians that formerly lived upon reservations are now 
citizens of the United States and of Oklahoma. 

The tribes include the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and 
Seminoles. They are civilized; they till the soil, raise cattle, and 
have schools, churches, and newspapers. 

4. Cities. —Oklahoma City is the capital and largest city. 
It is an important railroad center and has manufactures of flour, 
lumber, machinery, and cottonseed oil. The Epworth University 
is located here. Muskogee, in the coal and oil region, is a 
leading educational center. 

Tulsa has productive oil and gas wells, and coal mines, beside important 
manufactures of machinery, flour, and lumber. McAlester is' an 
important coal-mining center. In Enid, Shawnee, Guthrie, 
and Chickasha, the milling of flour and the manufacture of cotton¬ 
seed oil are important industries. 

Review' Topics. —How does Texas rank in size? How was it acquired by 
the United States? For what is it famed? VVhat are some of the products? In 
what does it lead? What of its wool? Its cotton and wheat lands? Its mineral 


XXXVI. CEXTllAL STATES. 



In the famous blue-grass region. Kentucky. 


State. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population, 

1920. 

Capitals. 

Chief Cities and their 
Population. 

Kentucky . 

40,.598 

2,416,6.30 

Frtinkfort.... 

Louisville... 234,891 

Ohio. 

41,040 

5,759,894 

Columltus .... 

Cleveland.. 796,841 

Indiana. 

.36,854 

2,980,890 

Indianapolis. . 

Indianapolis 314,194 

Illinois. 

56,665 

6,485,280 

Springfield.... 

Chicago.. . .2,701,705 

Michigan. 

57,980 

3,668,412 

Lan.sing. 

Detroit.... 998,678 

Wisconsin. 

56,066 

2,682,067 

Madison. 

Milwaukee. 457,147 

Missouri. 

69,420 

8,404,055 

Jefferson City. 

St. Louis. . . 772,897 

Iowa. 

.56,147 

2,404,021 

Des Moines... 

Des Moines. 126,468 

Minnesota. 

84,682 

2,387,125 

St. Paul. 

Minneapolis 380,582 

Kansas. 

82,158 

1,769,2.57 

Topeka. 

Kansas City 101,177 

Nebraska. 

77,520 

70,837 

1,296,372 

646,872 

Lincoln. 

Omahn 1Q1 fiOl 

North Dakota . . . 

Bismarck. 

Fargo. 21,961 

South Dakota . . . 

77,615 

686,547 

Pierre.«. 

Sioux Falls. 25,202 


resources ? Describe Austin. Dallas. San Antonio. Galveston. Houston. 
Port Worth. Denison. AVaco. Brownsville. Laredo. El Paso. Oklahoma City. 

1. Position and Surface.—The Central States are all inland, 
and occupA' nearlj' the Avhole of Avhat is called the Upper Mis- 
.sissippi ^'alley. 

The .surface is generally level, or rolling, with a gentle inclina¬ 
tion toward the Mississippi, Avhich occupies the line of lowest 
level from north to south. 

The only inqtortant elevations are the Black Hills of South 
Dakota, the hills of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, the 


5 



In the fertile farming section of Illinois, 


Ozark Mountains, and the western slopes and ridges of the 
Appalachian system in southeastern Kentucky. 

2. Prairies.— The most striking feature of these States is 
their vast prairies. Long ago these Avere treeless, covered Avith 
grass, gay with flowers, and alive Avith herds of buffaloes. The 
soil of the prairies is usually free from stones, and is exceedingly 
fertile. 

Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and the 
Dakotas are wholly or largely prairie regions. 

















































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CENTRAL STATES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 


63 



A harvester at worfc. 


3. Rivers.—The Central States are drained by the Mississippi 
and its tributaries. From all of these States, excepting Michi¬ 
gan, streams flow into the Mississippi, which carries the water 
into the Gulf of Mexico'. 

Situated between the two great watersheds of the country, and drain¬ 
ing an area of such vast extent, the Mississippi receives immense 
volumes of water. When its eastern tributaries are swollen by 
heavy rains at the same time that the tributaries from the west, 
owing to the melting of the snows upon the Rocky Mountains, are 
discharging unusually large quantities of water, the Mississippi re¬ 
ceives two floods at once. It then sometimes overflows its banks and 
attains the proportions of a sea. In the spring flood of 1867, the 
Mississippi was estimated to be, at Memphis, 40 miles broad. 

The eastern tributaries of the great river, as compared with the western, 
are shorter, more rapid, and not navigable to so great a distance. 

This is because the Mississippi does not occupy the middle of the valley; 
it is far to the east of the middle, being, below its junction with the 
Ohio, not very far from the most western range of the Ap¬ 
palachians. 

4. Climate.—These States have an inland, or continental, cli¬ 
mate. In the northern section the winters are long and severe, 
the summers are short and hot; 
in the southern the winters are 
milder, and the summers longer. 

6. Minerals.—The Central 
States are rich in minerals. The 
coal-fields of Ohio, Indiana, Il¬ 
linois, Iowa, Missouri, and Ken¬ 
tucky are among the largest in 
the world. They embrace an 
area of many thousand square 
miles. 

Masses of native copper, tons 


in weight, have been quarried out of the mines in the Lake 
Superior copper region. 

The Lake Superior region produces four-fifths of all the iron 
mined in the United States. It is also mined in Ohio, Kentucky, 
and Missouri. Lead and zinc abound in Missouri, Kansas, and 
Wisconsin; gold and silver in South Dakota. 

Michigan produces more salt than any other State. Illinois and Ohio 
furnish much petroleum. 


6. The Central States are the great grain, lumber, and meat- 
producing region of the country. Potatoes, hay, tobacco, sugar- 



Logging on the AJenominee river at Menominee, Michigan. 


beets, flax, hemp, and fruits are also important crops. The wool 
clip in Ohio and Michigan is very great. 

The maimfactnres of these States are enormously valuable 
and include farming implements, railroad cars, carriages, auto¬ 
mobiles, packed meat, lumber, and tobacco, in all of which this 
section leads. 

The fisheries of the Great Lakes are a profitable source of industry ‘ 
in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Whitefish, lake herring, 

trout, and sturgeon are taken in- 
enormous quantities. 

The commerce of the Central 
States consists chiefly in the sale 
of flour, beef, pork, lard, ma¬ 
chinery, copper, lead, iron, lum¬ 
ber, wheat, corn, and oats. 

Many of these products are sold in 
the manufacturing cities of the 
Eastern States and to foreign coun¬ 
tries, from which these States buy 
textile goods, boots and shoes, hard¬ 
ware, and various manufactures. 



Unloading iron ore from lake steamers at Cleveland. One end of the long steel crane is lowered 
to the deck; the ore is ho sted and put in cars, which run to the other end of the crane and dump 
it on the docks. 


MAP STUDIES.— In which of these States are mountains found? 
Which border on Lake Michigan ? On Lake Erie ? On the Ohio ? On 
the Mississippi ? 

Kentucky.—What mountains separate Kentucky from Virginia ? 
What i-iver north ? Northeast ? West ? Name the principal tributaries 
of the Ohio flowing through Kentucky. Wliat river enters the Ohio near 
Newport? What two rivers from Tennessee cross the western part of the 
State ? Whei-e does the Cumberland river rise ? Locate Louisville. 
Covington. Newport. Lexington. Paducah. Henderson. Bowling 
Green. Frankfort. Winchester. Paris. Ashland. Maysville. Mam- 
motli Cave. 

Ohio.—What river separates Ohio from West Virginia ? From Ken¬ 
tucky ? What lake north ? What rivers flow into the Ohio ? In what 
direction does the Maumee river flow ? In what part of the State is the 
capital ? Locate Cincinnati. Cleveland. Columbus. Toledo. Dayton. 
Youngstown. Springfield. Akron. Zanesville. Sandusky. Hamilton. 
Newark. Mansfield. Portsmouth. 


liuliana.—What great lake north? What river sepai-ates Indiana 
from Kentucky ? What river forms part of the boundary between In¬ 
diana and Illinois ? What are the branches of the White river ? In what 
directions does the Wabash flow ? What is the capital of the State, and 
where? Where is Evansville? Fort Wayne? Terre Haute ? South Bend? 
New Albany ? Richmond ? Lafayette ? Logansport ? Elkhai’t ? Muncie ? 
Anderson ? Vincennes ? Bloomington ? 

Illinois.—What river west ? What lake and river east? What river 
south ? Into what does the Illinois flow? Into what does Rock river 
flow? Where is the Kaskaskia? The Sangamon? The Little Wabash? 
Where is Lake Peoria? Name the capital. What great city on Lake 
Michigan? Where is Peoria? Quincy? Joliet? Rockford? Bloomington? 
Aurora? Decatur? Rock Island? Alton? Cairo? 

Routes of Travel.—On what body of water would you travel in go¬ 
ing by steamboat from Cincinnati to Cairo ? Cairo to Quincy ? Cleveland 
to Toledo? Cincinnati to Wheeling, West Va.? Louisville to Nash¬ 
ville ? Terre Haute to New Albany ? 
































64 


KENTUCKY AND OHIO. 




The Mississippi and its tributai'ies give 
to the people of the Central States a 
natural outlet to the Gulf for their prod¬ 
uce. The Great Lakes are inland seas, 
which furnish, in connection with 
the St. Lawrence and the canals, 
water .routes to the Atlantic, and thus 
to Europe. 

A vast network of railroads covers this 
section, providing nurnei'ous additional 


Paducah, near the mouth of the Tennessee, 
is an important shipping point for tobacco, 
pork, and grain. It has car shops and lumber 
mills. Owensboro makes carriages and wag¬ 
ons, and sliips large quantities of tobacco. 
Henderson has cotton mills and carriage 
factories. Frankfort, the capital of the 
State, has boot and shoe factories and lumber 
mills, and is an educational center. 


3. Ohio.—Ohio is the fourth State of 
the Union in population. The people 
are largely engaged in manufacturing. 
The State ranks first in the manufacture 
of carriages and clay 
products, and very 
high in the produc¬ 
tion of steel, agricul¬ 
tural implements, 
and foods. 


Manufacturing plows at the Avery Works, Louisville, Ky. The first room, 
ai the top of the page, shows the casting room where the melted metal is poured into 
molds to make the shares and other iron parts of the plow. The second is the 
wood-working room. The third is a “ stocking ” or setting-up room, where the 
different parts are put together. 

highways for trade, and serving, with their eastern 
and southern connections, to transmit the merchandise 
of the Central States to the Atlantic seaboard or to the Gulf. 

Among the coininercial cities are Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, De¬ 
troit, Louisville, St. Paul, Minneapolis, Duluth, Omaha, Indianapolis, 
Milwaukee, and Cleveland. 

Review Topics.—Location of the Central States and their capitals. Sur¬ 
face. Elevations. Prairies. What States in the Prairie region ? What causes the 
floods? Compare the eastern and the western tributaries of the Mississippi. The 
climate. Coal fields. Copper. Iron. Lead. Salt. Agriculture, and manufac¬ 
turing. Fisheries.. The commerce. Natural advantages for commerce. How 
connected with the Atlantic seaboard? Commercial cities. 


XXXVII. KENTUCKY AND OHIO. 

1. Kentucky.—Kentucky surpasses every other State in the 
production of tobacco and hemp, though corn is the most valuable 
crop. The famous blue-grass region, in the Licking and Ken¬ 
tucky river valleys, is one of the finest grazing districts in the 
United States. Its horses and cattle are very celebrated. Ex¬ 
tensive forests of hard wood and rich deposits of coal and iron 
are found in Kentucky. 

The Mammoth Cave, in the central part of the State, is one of the 
most remarkable caverns in the world. It extends undei’ground for 
miles, but lias never been thoroughly explored. It contains a navi¬ 
gable lake of fresh water. The roofs and walls of its chambers are 
covered with glistening stalactites. The fish that live in its waters 
are blind. 

2. Cities.—The chief manufacturing and commercial city is 
Louisville, the largest tobacco market in the world. Its manu¬ 
factures include tobacco, machinery, flour, packed meat, clothing, 
leather, and cars. The selling of these and other articles makes 
a large wholesale trade. 

It is at the falls of the Ohio, to pass which a canal has been constructed 
capacious enough to admit the largest steamers that ply on the river. 

Opposite Cincinnati are Covington, with machine shops and 
tobacco factories, and Newport, with iron and steel works and 
machine shops. Lexington, located in the blue-grass country, 
is a beautiful city. It is a center of the tobacco trade, has large 
flour mills, and is noted for its institutions of learning. 


Lumber yard and railroad bridge at Cleveland. The taU buildings of the city are seen in the 

background. 


The coal mines in east¬ 
ern Ohio are very pro¬ 
ductive, and there are 
also valuable petro¬ 
leum and natural gas 
wells in this region. 


Ohio is also a leading agricultural State. Grain, live stock, 
and dairy products are all largely produced. This State ranks 
high in the production of wool. Tobacco and grapes are ex¬ 
tensively cultivated. 

The State has remarkable commercial advantages. 

The Ohio river. Lake Erie, and the connecting canal, furnish a 
cheap waterway from the State to the coal, steel, and iron regions 
of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and the States bordering on the 
Great Lakes, and also with the markets of the Mississippi Valley. 
The Erie Barge Canal and the railways of New York, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and Maryland connect it with the seaboard. 

4. Cities. — The largest city in Ohio is Cleveland; it is finely 
situated on Lake Erie. It has easy access to the coal and oil 
of Penn.sylvania and to the iron of the Lake Superior region. 
It is therefore noted for the manufacture of iron and steel and 
the refining of oil. Steel ships, automobiles, clothing, and ma- 
chinery of every sort are made. Meat packing and printing and 
publishing are other leading industries. 

Cincinnati is the largest and chief commercial and manufac¬ 
turing city of the Ohio valley. It has river and railway connec¬ 
tions with all parts of the country. Its foundries and machine 
shops manufacture iron and steel brought by river and rail 





































INDIANA AND ILLINOIS. 


65 





from the cities of the smelting region along Lake Erie. Clothing, 
leather goods, and meats are the other leading manufactures. 

Columbus, the state capital, is centrally situated and has 
large iron and steel industries. Boots and shoes and malt liquors 
are next in importance. Toledo is an important grain market 
and has large flour mills, iron works, and petroleum refineries. 
Dayton manufactures cash registers, machinery, cars, and automobiles; 
Y o u II s - 
town, near 
the Pennsyl¬ 
vania border, 
is the leading 
city of Ohio 
in the manu¬ 
facture of iron 
and steel; 

Akron man¬ 
ufactures rub¬ 
ber tires and 
elastic goods; 

Canton,Lo¬ 
rain,Zanes- 

vilify and automobile tires at the Diamond Rubber Works, Akron, 0. 

After the rubber is mixed with materials to harden it, it is then passed be- 
Ste u ben- tween steel rollers which press it into sheets, as shown in the first vieu\ The 
. I I second view shows how the tires are, built up by laying strips of rubber fo- 

Vllie arc gethe-'; the t'res are then vulcanized by placing them in steam-heated cham- 
notcd for iron which melt the several parts into one solid piece. 

and steel products ; Spring'field, for agricultural implements; Ham¬ 
ilton, for paper and machinery; Lima, for tobacco and locomotives; 
Newark, for its glass works and railroad repair shops : and Ports¬ 
mouth, for boots and shoes. 

Keview Topics. —In what does Kentucky excel ? Describe the blue-grass 
region. What minerals in the State? Describe tlie Mammoth Cave. How did 
the early settlers get tlieir crops to market? Describe Ijouisville. Covington and 
Newport. Lexington. Frankfort. Paducah. Maysville. Owensboro. Hen¬ 
derson. Population of Ohio. Mineral Products. Agricultural Products. How is 
Ohio connected with the Mississippi Valley and the seaboard? Describe Cin¬ 
cinnati. Cleveland. Columbus. Toledo. Other cities. 


XXXVIII. INDIANA AND ILLINOIS. 

1. Indiana and Illinois.—Illinois is in the prairie region ; In¬ 
diana in the hardwood forest region. Their latitude and climate, 
their productions and pursuits, are the same. They are among 
the greatest corn and wheat growing States in the country. 

2. Indiana 
is the ninth 
State of the 
Union in pop¬ 
ulation, and 
one of the 
leading Cen¬ 
tral States in 

agriculture, stock-raising, Avool-growing, 
and manufacturing. Most of the trunk 
lines of railway connecting the eastern 
and western parts of the country cross 
the State. This fact helps to promote 
its manufacturing and commercial in¬ 
dustries. 


The Wyandot Cave rivals the 
Mummotli C’ave in extent and gran¬ 
deur. The Bedford limestone, found 
in the same section, has a national 
reputation for liianness and is a 
favorite building stone. 

3. Cities.—The capital of the 
State is Indianapoli.s, the largest 
and the most important commer¬ 
cial and manufacturing city. 
The numerous lines of railway 
which center here furnish it with 
an abundance of raw materials 
for its meat-packing, flouring, woodworking, and steel industries. 

Indiana has 25 cities of over 10,000 population each, and more 
than 50 with a poi)ulation of over 5000. Most of these towns 
are important manufacturing and railroad centei'S. 

Fort Wayne, the second city of Indiana, is noted for the manu¬ 
facture of electrical apparatus, knit goods, oil tanks, and pumps. 
Evansville has manufactures of flour, furniture, and tobacco. Terre 
Haute is noted for enameled ware, coke, glass, and greenhouse 
products and South Bend, for carriages and wagons, automobiles, 
agricultural implements, and sewing machines. Gary and East 
Chicago have the largest blast furnaces and steel mills west of 
Pittsburgh. Mnncie manufactures glass and automobiles; An¬ 
derson, iron and steel; Richmond, agricultural implements; 
Hammond, machinery and canned goods; New Albany, leather 
and steel products ; and Lafayette, packed meat. Marion manu¬ 
factures machinery and glass. Elkhart and Logansport have 
railroad repair shops. Kokomo makes automobiles, and Michi¬ 
gan City, railroad cars. 

4. Illinois is iioav the third State in the Union in popula¬ 
tion. It is in the prairie region, and has a very fertile soil. 
Its large crops of corn, oats, and wheat, and its high rank in 
stock-raising have made it the chief food-producing State. It 
I’anks first in the packing of meat and third 
in manufacturing. Its coal fieltls, which 
underlie nearly two-thirds of the State, 
have greatly helped its industries and made 

it next to 
Ohio in the 
production of 
steel. Its oil 
wells are very 
productive. 
Lead and zinc 
are mined, and limestone and 
sandstone are quarried. 

5. Cities.— Chicago is the most 
important commercial center on 
the Great Lakes, and the second 
in the country. It is the greatest 
grain market in the world, and 
the leading market in the United 
States for live stock, pork, and 
lumber. 


Rich coal-fields, petroleum, and natural 
gas are fomid near its western bor¬ 
ders. 


The manufacture of wheels at the Studehaker factory. South Bend, Ind. 
1. Putting the spokes and felloes together: 2. Welding tires by electricity; 3. Put¬ 
ting the steel boxes into the hubs by hydraulic pressure; 4. The tire^ are heated 
white-hot in the furnace and placed on the wheels; the wheel then drops into a tank 
of water which cools the tire, causing it to contract, binding all parts of the wheel 
firmly together. 


It receives a large part of ihe 
produce of the Central States, and 







































Towner 




Grafton' 


_ Grand 
^ Forks 1 


I Miy-fleld 

Castifetoii 

Valiev A 
Cit.f ii. 


Bmki 

'Vahiwtt 


•rrsei 


Aberdeen' 


fillbank, 


Radfield 


^amp44kaM 

Lttkt * 


Waterta 






Chamberlain 
^BruJe 


SaJem 


MitcheU' 


J Fallf^U 

\VcantonJ^- 


Vanktoi 


transmits it to eastern and foreign markets. It receives 
ea.stern and foreign goods, and distributes them throughout 
the northwest. Railways 
and water routes connect 
it with every part of the 
country. Its lake traffic 
IS very extensive. 

The railway trains that 
enter or leave the city 
daily number about two 
thousand, making it the 
greatest railroad center 
in the world. 

Grain is brought to Chi¬ 
cago in bulk, and raised 
into elevator warehouses 
by endless chains with 
buckets attached. It is 
then discharged through 
spouts into boats or cars. 

In the value of its manu¬ 
factures Chicagoranks 
next to New York. Its 
facilities for transporta¬ 
tion by way of the lakes 
bring to it the iron, 
lumber, and fuel needed 
for its great industry, and 
have made it the first city in its lumber and furniture prod¬ 
ucts, and the second in its output of iron and steel. It is 
connected also by canal with the Mississippi river system. 
This, and the water route by way of the Great Lakes‘and 
the Erie Canal, give it cheap transportation to both the 
Atlantic and Gulf ports. It is the seat of the University 
of Chicago, one of the most richly endowed educational 
institutions in the United States. 

Peoria, the second city in the State, is noted for the 
manufacture of cereal products. It is also an important 
market for grain and farming implements. Hast St. 
Louis, on tlie opposite side of the Mississippi from 
St. Louis, is noted as a railway center and as a place for 
the transfer of freight between eastern and western lines. 
It has large flour mills, machine shops, iron and steel 
works, chemical works, and meat-packing establishments. 


A street comer in Chicago, showing one of the 
tall steel frame buildings. 


SOLAR TIME—When if Ps Noon on the MeridPan of Washington, 10:28 A. M 


- 

I ^ Tear 

Col pnbia , La 

I X"' 


steel, wire, machinery, and coke. Decatur is noted for its flour mills 
and machine shops; Aurora, for machinery, motor-cycles, and cotton 
goods; Danville and Bloomingptou, for railroad shops; and Elgin, 
for watches, clocks, machinery, and creamery products. Evanston 

manufactures iron, and steel pipe, 
and is the seat of the Northwest¬ 
ern University. Rock Island 
is an important railroad center. 
Agricultural implements, lumber, 
and oilcloth and linoleum are 
among its manufactures. 


The meat industry in Chicago. 1. The great stockyards where cattle are brought on tratr^ from 
the West. 2. Cold storage room of a great packing house, where beef is hung awaiting shipment. 
The temperature of this room is at all times near freezing point. 3. Stuffing sausages in sausage 
department. 4. Washing butterine preparatory to making oleomargarine. 


Springfield, the capital, is in the midst of a productive country, 
and tlie center of an active trade. Its manufactures include 
agricultural implements, boots and shoes, and flour. Rockford 
manufactures furniture, knit goods, and farm implements. 

Besides these larger towns, Illinois has about thirty others with a popu¬ 
lation of over ten thousand. Quincy is an important trade-center 
and has large stove works, meat-packing houses, and machine shops. 
Joliet, on the Chicago and Illinois Canal, manufactures iron and 


Moline is noted for the making 
of plows, carriages and wagons, 
iron and steel products, and auto¬ 
mobiles ; Galesburg, for its 
railroad and machine shops; and 
Belleville, for its stove works 
and boot and shoe factories. 


66 

























































Longitude West 94° fi-om Greenwich 92' 


WOODS 


SCALE or MILES 


)rt WlUiojrr 




.manitou I. 


HougJ 


APOSTLE 


•yf J«<egl 


'P«''or^.Aah^ 


Cld^el 




•Wadena /r 


Jainerd 




Manlstique 


Strait of 

^ ^ s 


[Uttle 

jFaUs 


Escanftt)^ 


L*^arf#r 'Ba^ 


( Taylor’s^ 
^ Falls ^ 
»Anoka \ 


Merrill 


Litohileldl 


ISiillwater 


♦Chippewa 
< Falls 

Mar 

Eau Claire 


^Hudson 

Menomoniei 


Osco^* 

rjg^wa^jT 


Chaska 


Glencoe 


WKewaune^ 

lund / 

-^o Rivers^ ^ 

^anitorvwop 

L 

SheboYflaj' 

!4 !|5! 

Port 1 

Washington 


U^Cad'"^” 

Sst®* 


Hasting^ 


»>'eills:i^f 


NorthfieM 


Lake Cit^T^ 
Wahashi N 
.Owatonna^ Win )i 
Rochester 
Chatfield^^^ 


/Manj 


Faribault' 


Black River^ 

Falls 

^ 0 -^ Tomah 
'“'■'J. Spaita* 

Croat® 


Omr^ 


■Waseca, 


ySaint James 


Ripon 


Albert Lea 


raupnn" 


^ Ap*stin, 


•"Porti 


Baral 




^atertown 


Wisco n^ 


Rap"*® 

1^1 Jstings*^^ 
^jlAfiegan 


iMilwauVe^ 


Mineral, 


^Jetw' rPwhitewater 

> ^ * / 

^ Jane^ille ^ 

BeloitL^"]r:!.^S^ 


Point 

>lattevjlle'^ 


[Racine 

jjCenosh^ 


(nazoO Marshall A'lbi^ 
riac ^^ Millsdale* 

Lree<^«IL„is _ S 


Dubuque< 


St.Josepl 


Longitude West 


from 'Washington 


\dusi^ 


ll:32 


CENTRAL STATES 

NORTHERN DIVISION 


xandria 


^ A K1 
•*’vj iVe 

ffd 


Review Topics.—In what region do Indiana and Illinois lie? Describe 
their surface. Bank of Indiana. Population. Agriculture and stock raising. 
Its coal fields. Describe Indianapolis. Evansville. What is said of other places? 
How does Illinois rank in population? In what does it surpass other States? 
WTiat other important industries? Mineral resources. Describe Chicago. Its 
distributing business. Its trains. Elevators. Springfield. Name other impor¬ 
tant cities of Illinois and some manufacturing industry of each. 

MAP STUDIES.—Which of the Great Lakes are on the northern 
boundary? Which States are bordered on the north by Lake Superior? 
Which States are bordered by the Mississippi ? Which State by the greatest 
number of lakes? How are lake.s Superior and Huron connected? Lakes 
Michigan and Huron? Lake Huron and Lake Erie? 

Mioliiffan.—How i.s Jlichi- 
gan divided? What portion i.s 
mountainous? What lake 
bounds the southern peninsula 
on the w'e.st? What three lakes 
on the east? What bays on the 
northern peninsula? Where is 
Green Bay? Isle Roy ale? 
Name and locate the capital. 
How is it situated? Where is 
Detroit? Grand Rapids? Sag¬ 
inaw? Bay City? Muskegon? 
Jackson? Kalamazoo? Port 
Huron? Battle Creek? 


Wisconsin.—Trace the Wisconsin River. The Chippewa. What 
river forms part of the northeastern boundary? In what direction does 
Fo.v River flow? What lake does it drain? Where is Madison? Mil¬ 
waukee? La Cros.se? Janesville? Oshkosh? Racine? Eau Claire? 
Sheboygan? Ashland? Superior? Appleton? Watertown? 

Minnesota.—What ridge crosses the northern part of this State? 
What lakes and river form a part of the northern boundary? What 
river separates Minnesota from North Dakota? Of what is the Red 
River the outlet? How do the waters of Big Stone Lake reach the sea? 
Trace the Minnesota. Where does the Mississippi rise? What lake does 
it drain? What is the capital? Locate Minneapolis, Duluth, Winona, 
Stillwater, Brainerd, Red Wing. 

Nortli Dakota and Sontli Dakota.—What plateau traverses both 
States? (See physical map of United States.) What large river on the 
eastern side of the dividing plateau? On the western? What tributary of 
the Missouri has its sources in the Black Hills? What is the capital of 
North Dakota? Of South Dakota? Where is Fargo? Grand Forks? The 
Black Hills? Sioux Falls? Lead? 

Routes of Travel.—How would you go by water from Chicago to 
Detroit? Milwaukee to Duluth? Milwaukee to Fond du Lac? Isle 
Royale to Lake Erie? 



















































































68 


MICHIGAN AND WISCONSIN. 





2. Cities. —Detroit is the largest city and the most impoi tant 
lake port in the State. Its chief manufactures are iron and steel 
products, packed meat, tobacco, brass and copper work, drugs, and 
clothing. It leads in the manufacture of automobiles, and has ma¬ 
chine shops and wood-working plants of every description. Lan¬ 
sing, the State capital, has automobile works and machine shops. 


Grand Rapids, the second city in size, has over fifty factories for 
the making of furniture. Saginaw and Bay City manufacture beet 


XXXIX. MICHIGAN, WISCONSIN, MINNESOTA, NORTH 
AND SOUTH DAKOTA. 

1. Mich.igan. —Michigan is divided into two peninsulas: a 
northern and a southern. It is nearly surrounded by three of 
the Great Lakes; hence its climate is milder than that of any 
other inland State in the same latitude. 

The Pictured Rocks ou the southern shore of Lake Superior are 
colored as though painted. They are cliffs of sandstone. 

This State has great niinerul wealth. 

The central and northern parts supply about one-third of the iron and 
copper ore and salt produced in the United States. The mines of 
copper on the shores of Lake Superior are among the richest in the 
world, and make Michigan one of the leading States in the pro¬ 
duction of this metal. Thei’e are also large deposits of coal in the 
southern peninsula. Gypsum also is found in large amounts. 

It is u.sed as a fertilizer or is made into plaster of Paris. 

Michigan is a rich agricultural country. 

The mild climate of the western shore of the Sf)uthern peninsula 
makes it one of the leading fruit regions. Corn, oats, wheat, 
and hay are leading crops. In the production of sugar beets 
and potatoes Michigan is one of the leading States. It also 
ranks liigh in live stock, and in the production of wool and 
dairy products. Michigan formerly was first in the pro¬ 
duction of pine lumber, but the forests have been largely 
cut away, and its lumber industry is declining. Great quan¬ 
tities of hard wood lumber are brought into the State for 
the manufacture of furniture, in which Michigan ranks second 
among the States. 

The lake shore of Mich¬ 
igan is more than a tliou- 
sand miles in length— 
greater than the sea- 
coast of any Slate except 
Florida. The lake trade 
is therefore very large. 

Ores and lumber, from 
theLake Superior shores, 
and wheat and flour 


The second view shows iie cabinet room. 
Here, all the parts are smoothly and 
accurately finished and are turned over 
to cabinet-makers to be put together. 
The strength and durability of furniture 
depends upon the manner in which this 
work is done. 

from the ports of Wisconsin 
and Minnesota, are carried to 
the various ports along 
the lakes. The ship canal, 
around the Falls of St. 
Mary or The Soo, con¬ 
necting Lake Superior and 

This view shows the trimming room. Here doors are Lake Huron Carries more 

hung, drawers fitted, mirrors inserted, and all fittings, » . , , ’ 

such as handles and knobs, are put on. freight than any other canal 

in the world. Ores, gram and lumber are the chief articles carried. 






A celery field at Kalamazoo, Micfi, 


sugar, lumber, 
and machinery. 

Kalamazoois 
a paper-making 
center. Flint 
and Jackson 
are both noted 
for the manu¬ 
facture of auto¬ 
mobiles, and 
carriages and 
wagons. Bat¬ 
tle Creek has extensive cereal food mills. Muskegon manufactures 
lumber products, machinery, knit goods, and paper. Port Huron 
has large car shops. Ann Arbor is the seat of Michigan University. 
Pontiac has automobile works; and Alpena, tanneries. Escanaba 
is a shipping point for iron ore and lumber. Iron wood and Ishpeining 

■ are iron mining centers. Sault 
Ste. Marie, on the Soo Canal, is 
one of the leading cities of the 
northern peninsula. 

The region at the head of Saginaw 
Bay has numerous salt wells, from 
the water of which salt is manu¬ 
factured at Saginaw and Bay City. 

3. Wisconsin.—Southern 
Wisconsin consists of rolling 
prairies of very rich soil. Oats, 
corn, barley, hay, potatoes, sugar 
furniture at beets, aiul tobacco are the prin- 

in layers of . .. o i • • 

mahogany or other cabine woods, called veneer,are Cipal Cl’OpS. otOCk raising, 
glued to the parts which are to be made into fumi- ° 

ture. The parts are then put under heavy pressure tlail’V farminST, and. fruit frrow- 
to make the veneer adhere firmly. •' ° ® 

ing are large and increasing interests and furnish a large trade. 

The northern part of the State has extensive forests of pine, 
hemlock, spruce, and hard wood, which make it the leading State 
in lumber products. 

The manufacture of flour is an immense industry. Much wheat 
is imported from neighboring States for the purpose. The man¬ 
ufacture of cheese and butter, tanning and finishing leather, 
slaughtering and meat packing, are important industries. 

Wisconsin has colder winters than Michigan, as the Avest and 
southwest winds sweep across the land instead of over water. 
Zinc, iron, and lead, are mined. 

4. Cities.—The largest city in the State is Milw^aukee, the 
chief commercial and manufacturing center, and one of the 


Works of the Case Threshing-Machine Company at Racine. Hotice the engines used to run the 
machines and the cases of goods directed to Buenos Aires. 








































WISCONSIN AND MINNESOTA. 


69 




leading grain and lumber markets of the world. It has exten¬ 
sive manufactures of iron, steel, and machinery, beverages, 
leather, and Hour. Superior, the second city in size, is one of 
the large flour-milling centers of the country. It also ships much 
wheat, iron ore, and lumber, and receives coal for reshipinent. 
Racine, the third city, has a large lake trade and manufactures 
agricultural implements, automobiles, and carriages and wagons. 


Madison, the capital of the State, is the seat of the State University, 
and manufactures machinery and farming implements. Oshkosh has 
lumber mills, and watch factories. La Crosse is noted for flour and 

lumber mills; Shehoyg-aii, 
for furniture and leather; 
Green Bay, for flour, paper 
and wood pulp; Kenosha, 
for leather, furniture, and 
automobiles; and FoikI du 
Lac, for leather. Eau 
Claire and Appleton man¬ 
ufacture lumber and paper. 
Wausau has lumber and 
flour mills. Beloit is noted 
for machinery; Marinette, 

Four steps in the manufacture of leather. 

The first view shows the process of remov¬ 
ing the hair from the hides and trimming 
the sinews, flesh, and other useless parts 
from them. 

for lumber; Manitowoc, for 
machinery and flour; and 
Ashland, for its blast fur¬ 
naces. Many cities border¬ 
ing the lakes have large 
shipping intei-ests, and are 
centers of manufacture. 

6. The Great Lakes 
border chiefly on the Cen¬ 
tral States, and separate them 
from the Dominion of Canada. 


The second view shows the tanning yard. 

The hides, after having the hair removed, 
are hung in vats containing the extract 
of hemlock bark, called tannin. At certain 
intervals, the hides are transferred to other 
tanks containing stronger and stronger 
Th6V S'!*© situat6d upon three solutions of tannin, until they are changed 

^ into leather. This process requires from 

t©rr<lC0S, one above the two to five months, depending upon the 
■ I 1 • • kind of leather desired. 

other, so that m going 

from the sea to Lake Superior, we ascend by three steps. 
The first step lands us on the Lake Ontario terrace; the second 
above the Falls of Niagara, on a level with the three middle 
lakes—Huron, Michigan, and Erie; the third step lands us above 
Sault Ste. Marie, on a level with Lake Superior, at least 600 feet 
higher than the sea. 

To enable vessels to descend from Lake Superior to the level 


The harbor of Duluth. The dark strip in (he upper part of the picture is a narrow neck of land 
seven miles long, which forms the outer p otection to the harbor. On it are thousands of summer 
homes, and a railroad traverses the entire length. 

The summers of Minnesota are delightful; the winters are 
severe, but uniform. 

Minnesota is a leading wheat growing State, and stands high in 
the production of oats and flax. 

Much timber is obtained from the forests in the northern part of 
the state. 

Minnesota stands first in the Union in the manufacture of flour, 
ranks high in the manufacture of lumber and linseed oil, and pro¬ 
duces more iron than any other State. 

7. Cities. — Minneapolis, the largest city in the State, and 
St. Paul, the capital and second in size, are built side by side 
near the falls of St. Anthony, at the head of navigation on the 
Mississippi. Though under separate city governments, they 
form one great commercial center. Minneapolis manufactures 
more flour than any other city in the world, besides lumber, 
linseed oil, and machinery. St. Paul is the shipping and dis¬ 
tributing point for the entire 
surrounding region. It is a 
great railway center and is at 
the terminus of steamboat navi¬ 
gation. It ships vast amounts 
of flour and lumber, and re¬ 
ceives supplies of every kind 
for the farming and lumbering 
districts. Its leading manu- 


The third view shows the shaving machines. 
These machines remove the roughness and 

of the St. Lawrence River and the Atlantic Ocean, canals have af fZoih't °they^areX 

been constructed around the Falls of St. Mary and Niagara, nature on the gram or hair side. 

factures 


The passage around the Falls of Niagara is made by means of the 
Welland Canal. 

The coininerce on the lakes is very great; it consists chiefly in the 
shipment to foreign and domestic ports of coal, iron, lumber, grain, 
flour, and meat. It employs not less than five thousand steamers 
and other vessels. 

6. Minnesota. —Minnesota is crossed by the ridge, or ‘ ‘ Height 
of Land,” which separates the valley of the Mississippi from the 
northern slope of the Great Central Plain. 

On this elevation, botli the Mississippi and the Red river of the North 
take their rise, the one flowing south and the other north. The 
crest of the “Height of Land ” is crowned with lakes of clear water. 
Ita.sca, one of these, with its tributaries, is the source of the 
Mississippi. 

The Falls of St. Anthony, on the upper Mississippi, are noted for their 


are machinery, 
cars, butter, boots and 
shoes, and fur goods. 

Duluth, the third city, 
stands at the western 
extremity of Lake Su¬ 
perior, across the harbor 

from the city of Superior. The fourth view shmvs the setting room. Here the skins 
are spread out on tables and are “ slicked ” or smoothed 
It is the principal ship- stone or an instrument with a blunt blade. 


y this means the skins are made smooth and of uniform 
thickness. The final operation, which is not shown in the 
pictures, consists in giving a finish to the surface of the 
leather by means of varnishes, dyes, or other finishing- 
liquids. 

It manufac- 


ping point for the wheat 
of the Red river prairies 
of Minnesota. It also ships much iron and lumber, 
tures lumber, iron and steel products. 




immense water-power. 


Wiuona has a large shipping trade in lumber and wheat, and manu- 



























70 


MliSIMESOTA.—NOKTH DAKOTA AND SOUTH DAKOTA. 



factures flour, medicines, malt, and packed meat. The preparation of 
flax fiber is also important. St. Cloud has flour and lumber mills, and 
extensive granite quarries. Virginia is an iron mining center. Man¬ 
kato has flour mills, stone and cement industries, and iron foundries. 
Stillwater manufactures boots and shoes, flour, lumber, and farm 
machinery. 

8. North, and South Dakota. —North and South Dakota are 
watered by the upper Missouri, the Eed river of the North, and 
their tributaries. In soil and productions they resemble Min¬ 
nesota. Stock raising is important in both States. 

9. North Dakota. —The principal industry of the State is 
agriculture, and wheat, oats, barley, and flax are the chief grains 
grown. North Dakota ranks as a leading State in the produc¬ 
tion of spring wheat, and also in flaxseed. 

The western half of the State is underlaid with vast beds 
of lignite, a low grade of coal. Fine pottery clays are 
known to exist. 

Cities.— Bismarck, the capital, is a commercial center 
and shipping point for live stock. Fargo, the largest city, 
lias great packing industries, manufactures machinery, and 
is one of the largest distrib¬ 
uting points in the United 
States for farm machinery. 

Orand Forks manufactures 
boilers, flour, and lumber. 

Minot has a large trade' in 
wheat, live stock, and coal. 

Bevil’s Lake, Valley 
City, and Jamestown are 


State ranking high in gold. Gypsum, mica, petroleum, natural 
gas, and fine building stones abound in the State. The eastern 
part of the State has many artesian .wells which supply not 
only water for domestic 
and agricultural pur¬ 
poses, but power for 
mills and factories. 

Flour milling and cheese 
and butter making 
are important in¬ 
dustries. 

Cities. —Sioux Falls, 


The second icture s ows a bolting or sift’- 
ing room where the flour is passed through 
sieves made of wire clothe which gradually 
remove all the bran and grit, leaving only 
the fine white flour. These processes of 
grinding and bolting are repeated five or 
six times. 


pour passes 

through sieves made of the finest silk, which 
allow on y the fine white flour to pass. 

in the wheat-growing 
section and have grain 
elevators. 

10. South Dakota. 

—The grain productions 
of South Dakota are the 
same as those of North 
Dakota, but include also 
the finest of corn. The 
State ranks high in 
wheat, flaxseed, and beef cattle. Dairying is an important in¬ 
dustry. 

The onl}^ elevations in the State are the Black Hills. Here are 
very rich gold and silver mines that are extensively worked, the 


T e flour has now reached the bottom 
oi the mill. On each floor it has undergone some part of 
the manufacturing process. Here it is packed by machin¬ 
ery into barrels and bags and is ready for shipment. 


A packirig room, 
nill. 


The manufacture of flour at Minneapolis. 
The wheat is first raised by elevators to the top 
of the mill, which is usually a building from 
eight to ten stories irf height. After the grain 
is separated from chaff and seeds, it is thor¬ 
oughly scoured and prepared for grinding. 
The first picture shows a grinding room, 
where the grain is passed between steel or 
porcelain ro'lers. 

the largest city, manufactures 
flour, bakery products, packed 
meat, and farm implements. 
Pierre is the capital and is 
the largest center of the 
State for handling live stock. 
Lead, situated in the Black 
Hills region, has one of the 
largest gold mines in the 
world. The extraction of this metal from the ore is the prin¬ 
cipal industry. Deadwood and Rapid City are also mining 
centers. Aberdeen, Watertown, Mitchell, Huron, and 
Yankton are in the wheat-growing section, and have grain 
elevators and flour mills. Aberdeen is supplied with Avater and 
power from flowing artesian wells. Vermilion is the seat of the 
State University ; and Brooking.s, of an agricultural college. 

Review Topics. —Divisions of Michigan. Climate. Mineral resources. 
Lumber Product. Lake shore. Detroit. Lansing. Grand Rapids. Bay 
City. Saginaw. Muskegon. Escanaba. Ann Arbor. Name other places. 
Describe the surface of Wisconsin. Compare its climate with that of 
Michigan. Mineral resources. Resemblance to Michigan. Leading products. 
Describe Madison. Milwaukee. Name other thriving places. Oshkosh. Racine. 
Upon what three terraces do the Great Lakes lie? Height of Lake Superior ter¬ 
race. How many vessels descend from this height? Describe the commerce of 
the Great Lakes. What elevation in Minnesota? What rivers rise upon the 
Height of Land? Direction of flow. Waterfalls. Climate. Rank as a wheat 
growing State. The lumber trade. Minneapolis. St. Paul. Duluth. Winona. 
Stillwater. How are the Dakotas like Minnesota? Their chief crops. The chief 
industries. Chief towns in North Dakota. In South Dakota. Minerals in 
South Dakota? 


3IAP STUDIES.—Which of these States is mountainous ? Which 
ones border on the Mississippi ? On the Missouri ? What river partly 
bounds them all ? 

Iowa. —What river separates Iowa from Wisconsin and Illinois ? 
From Dakota ? From Nebraska ? In what direction do the tributaries of 
the Mississippi in this State flow ? What are the chief branches of the 
Missouri in Iowa ? What cities are on the Mississippi river? 

Olissouri. —What mountains in southern Missouri ? What river 
forms the eastern boundary ? Part of the western boundary ? Where 
does the Osage enter the Missouri ? What river joins the Missouri at 
Kansas City ? What is the capital ? 


Kansas. —Into what does the Kansas river flow ? What river trav¬ 
erses the southwestern part of the State ? What great river forms jjart of 
the northeastern boundary ? What part of the State has the most towns ? 
What is the capital ? 

Nebraska. —What river forms the eastern boundary ? What is the 
general slope of the country ? What river crosses the State ? In what 
part of the State are most of the towns ? What and where is the 
capital ? 

Routes of Travel. —How would you go by steamboat from St. Louis 
to Sioux City ? From Dubuque to Cairo ? From Minneapolis to Chicago ? 
From Bismarck to Bay City ? 











































Chariton .B.. 











O 

<a 

o\ 

> 

S 


o 


O' 

tAI 

K9 


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72 


MISSOUPJ AND IOWA. 


XL. MISSOURI, lOM A, KAXSAS, AXD XEBRASKA. 

1. Missouri and Iowa.—TJie climate, soil, and production of 
these States correspond to those of Kentucky, Ohio, and Illinois. 

Immense crops of grain 


and large numbers of 
cattle, hogs, and sheep 
are raised in Iowa and 
nortliern Missouri. 

2. Missouri is tlie third 
State in population west of 



at the Liggett <Sc Myera-Drumtnond factory, 
Louie. The leaves are stripped from the stalks 
and into the upright pneumatic pipes, u'hich 
carry them into another building. 


the Mississippi. North of the 
Missouri ami Osage rivers is 
a prairie country. South of 
these rivers it is hilly and 
rugged. The southern section 


The leaves are dipped into a solution oj 
licorice and weighed into packages of uniform 


has considerable mineral They are then mad. into plu./s by hand. 

wealth, producing zinc, lead, and much coal. Missouri holds a 
leading place among the States in the production of zinc and lead. 
Corn is the leading farm crop, the State ranking high in its pro¬ 
duction. Missouri mules rank first in cpiality and bring the highest 
prices. 

Other important ])rodiicts are wheat, tobacco, wool, potatoes and 
hay. Vineyards and orchards abound and excellent cotton is 
produced. 


packed meats, machinery, clothing, and lumber products. Many 
of these products are sent by water to New Orleans and thence to 
foreign countries. Railways also connect St. Louis with the Atlan¬ 
tic, Pacific, and Gulf ports and carry the larger part of its trade. 

Kansas City, on the Missouri river, is the second city of the 
State, an important railroad and commercial center, and one of 
the large live-stock markets of the country. It is continuous with 
Kansas City in Kansas, the middle of a street being the dividing 
line. Its manufactures consist largely of flour and building ma¬ 
terial. St. Joseph, the third city, is the center of trade for north¬ 
western Missouri. It is in a coal and natural gas region, has 
large clothing factories, flour mills, and meat packing houses, 
and a large trade in grain and live stock. 

Springfield manufactures flour and vehicles. Joplin is an impor¬ 
tant lead and zinc mimng center. Lead smelting and flour milling are 
its important industries. It also has foundries and maclune shops. 
Hannibal has boot and shoe factories, and flouring mills. Sedalia 
is a railway center and has extensive car shops and clothing factories. 
Jefferson City, the capital, manufactures boots and shoes, and flour. 

4. Iowa consists mainly in 
rolling prairies which are ex¬ 
ceedingly fertile. It is one 
of the leading States in the 
production of corn, oats, and 
hogs, and ranks high in other 
grains and live stock. Agri- 
culture,slaughtering,and meat 


_ . irtiaUy p 

hand, are here put into hydraulic presses 
and subjected to a pressure of several tons 
This gives them a permanent form. The 

_ , . . P ' e-^ 11 foreground of the picture shows the cases 

Missouri IS an important manufacturing State and ranks into which the plugs are packed. 


first in the manufacture of chewing and smoking tobacco and 
snuff. It holds a high rank in meat packing. 

3. Cities.— St. Louis, as its name implies, was first settled 
by the French. It is the largest city in the Mississippi Valley 
and the sixth in size in the United States. It is also the most 
important commercial center west of the Mississippi, receiving 
and distributing the products of both the East and M^est. 

Its situation near the meeting of two great rivers in a region embracing 
thou.sands of square miles of fertile land makes it the center of a 
vast trade. It is one of the leading cities of the country in the value 
of its manufactures, the clfief of these being boots and shoes, tobacco, 




A nailing machine. 


The cases of tobacco are put up in 
blocks of ten. 


A street in St. Louis, Notice the elevated railway structure. 


packing are the largest 
industries. The making 
of butter, cheese, and con¬ 
densed milk,and the man¬ 
ufacture of flour and lum¬ 
ber are next in importance. 

A great many pearl Imttoii.s are.made from the shell of the fresh¬ 
water mussel. Bituminous coal is the only important mineral prod¬ 
uct, Iowa ranking first in its production among the States west of 
the Mississippi. 

5. Cities.— De.s Moines, the capital and largest city, is in the 
midst of rich coal fields. It is the chief cattle and grain market 
in the State, manufactures machinery, medicines, and packed 
meat, and is a printing and publishing center. Sioux City, the 
second city, is on the Missouri river at the junction of important 
railroads ; it is a meat packing center and has other important 
manufacturing industries. Davenport is well located on the 
Mississippi near the rapids, which furnish great water power. It 
is a grain market, and manufactures glucose and starch, machin¬ 
ery, and flour. Dubuque has railroad repair shops, and manu¬ 
factures clothing and lumber. 

Cedar Kapids manufactures packed meat and other food products; 
Council Bluffs, cars and carriages. Waterloo manufactures 
farm implements and dairy machinery; Clinton, glucose and starch, 
and lumber products; Burlington, farm implements and machinery 



























KiVNSAS AND NEBRASKA. 


73 


Ottumwa is engaged in meat packing and in the manufacture of 
farming tools. Muscatine manufactures buttons, and lumber prod¬ 
ucts; Fort Dodge, boots and shoes, food preparations, and plaster. 
Keokuk has creameries, and manufactures glucose and starch, and 
medicines. Marshalltown has meat-packing establishments. 

6. Kansas and Nebraska.—The eastern portions of these 
States consist of rolling prairie. The western parts, having a 
drier climate, are valuable grazing lands. Immense numbers of 
cattle, horses, and sheep are raised. 

Both these States are scantily supplied with timber. Millions of trees 
have therefore been planted. They grow with great rapidity. 

7. Kansas.—The eastern part of Kansas having a mild and 
moist climate, the soil is exceedingly fertile and enormous crops 
ot corn, wheat, flax, alfalfa, sorghum, and millet are cultivated. 
Large numbers of hogs are raised. 

Deposits of zinc, lead, gypsum, salt, and coal abound, and all 
are largely worked. The coal beds underlie twenty counties in 
the eastern part of the State. Yast deposits of petroleum and 
natural gas have been discovered. 

Cities.— Kansas City, lying across the State line from Kansas 
City, Mo., is one of the largest meat-packing centers of the country. 
It also manufactures flour and is a large market for agricultural 
machinery. Wichita lies on the borders of the agricultural and 
stock-raising belts. It is a leading shipping center for live stock, 
and manufactures packed meat, flour, and lumber. Topeka, the 
capital, is a railroad center, and has important car shops, cream¬ 
eries, flour mills, and packing houses. 

Leavenworth, on the Missouri, is an important military post. It is in 
the coal-mining region and has extensive machine shops. Atchison 
and Hutchinson are shipping points for flour, grain, and stock. 
Pittsburg' is in the lead and zinc mining region. Coffeyville, 
Parsons, and Lawrence are agricultural and manufacturing centers. 



Dipping cattle in petroleum in Nebraska. This cleanses them and improves their health. 

8. Nebraska.—The eastern part of this State, where there is 
plenty of rain, produces enormous crops of corn, wheat, oats, and 
alfalfa. Hogs are raised in the corn belt. Dairying and fruit 
raising are important industries. The drier western parts of the 
State are well adapted to grazing. 

The surface of Nebraska slopes eastward and is drained by the 
deep, muddy Missouri, whose most important tributaries in the 
State are the Niobrara, the Platte, and the Republican rivers. 
These streams have broad, sandy bottom-lands, and are fed by 
thousands of springs. The Republican and the Platte lose much 
of their water during the summer months. 

The extreme western part of the State is occupied by the 


mesa and butte region, and in the extreme northwest corner, 
are the Bad Lauds. 

In these regions the rocky land has been worn by running water into 
jagged and irregular forms, and is unlit for agriculture or grazing. 
A mesa, or table, is a flat-topped hill; a butte is a small mesa stand¬ 
ing alone. 

The chief industries are slaughtering and meat packing, and 
the making of flour, cheese, butter, and condensed milk. 

9. Cities. — Omaha is the largest city and chief trading center. 
It is one of the largest meat-packing centers in the United States, 



Reaping sowed com for fodder in Nebraska. 


and is also noted for the smelting and refining of lead. Omaha 
is a center for many railroads, and is therefore a shipping point 
and a distributing center. Lincoln, the capital city, is the chief 
educational city. It is the seat of the State University, manufac¬ 
tures dairy products, and has a large wholesale trade. Grand 
Island has flour mills and railroad shops. 

Review Topics. —Compare Missouri and Iowa. Population of Missouri. 
Surface. Coal beds. Mineral resources. Leading agricultural products. St. 
Louis. ' Its situation. Manufactures. Kansas City. St. Joseph. Jefferson City. 
Other important places. The surface of Iowa. Minerals. In what is Iowa a 
leading State ? Manufactures. Coal. Des Moines. Dubuque. Sioux City. 
Other places of importance. Eastern Kansas and Nebraska. • Westeim. The 
climate of Kansas. Soil. Leading productions. Value as a grazing country. 
Minerals. Topeka. Kansas City. Other important places. Eastern Nebraska. 
Western. The climate. Productions. The Missouri and tributaries. The chief 
manufactures. Omaha. Lincoln. 

ROCKY MOUNTAIN AND PACIFIC STATES AND 
THE TERRITORY OF ALASKA. 


This section comprises three divisions: the Rocky Mountain 
region on the east; the Plateau region in the center; and the 
Coa.st region. 


State or 

Area in 

Population, 

Capitals. 

Chief Cities and their 

Territory. 

Sqr. Miles. 

1920. 

Population. 

New Mexico. 

122,6:i4 

360,350 

Santa Fc . 

.\lbuquerque 

15,157 

Colorado. 

103,948 

97,914 

939,629 

194,402 

Denver. 

Denver. 

.256,491 
. 13,829 

Wyoming. 

Cheyenne.... 

Cheyenne. . . 

Montana. 

146,997 

548,889 

Helena. 

Butte. 

41,611 

Nevada. 

110,690 

77,407 

Carson City... 

Reno. 

12,016 

Arizona. 

113,956 

84,990 

334,162 

449,396 

Phoenix. 

Phoenix. 

29,053 

dl8,110 

Utah. 

Salt Lake City 

Salt Lake CiD 

Tdn.hn 

83,888 

158,297 

96,699 

431,866 

3,426,861 

783,389 

Boise. 

Boise. 

21,393 

576,673 

258,288 

California. 

Oregon. 

Sacramento... 
Salem. 

Los Angeles. 
Portland... . 

Washington. 

69,127 

1,356,621 

Olympia. 

Seattle. 

315,312 

Alaska Territory.. 

590,884 

55,036 

Juneau. 

Juneau . 

3,058 


















































74 


ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION—NEW MEXICO. 


Xlil. ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 

1. This region embraces the States of Colorado, Wyomiug, 
Montana, and New Mexico. 


6. Resources.—This region possesses vast mineral wealth, and 
mining is the most important occupation of the people. The 
Great Plains are the chief grazing district of the continent. 



2. Surface.—It is the most mountainous portion of the coun¬ 
try. It extends on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, and 
includes the most elevated portions of the Great Plains, which 
stretch along the eastern base of the mountains. 

Its general elevation is about 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the sea level. 
Scores of its peaks are from 12,000 to 14,000 feet liigh. These moun¬ 
tains form the loftiest watershed in the United States. 

3. Rivers.— 

Here are the 
sources' of all 
the great rivers 
which flow 
eastwardly into 
the Mississippi, 
as well as the 
largest streams 
that flow into 
the Pacific. 

The most im- View of the Rocky Mountains from the plateau at Colorado 
, Springs^ showing Pike's Peak towering above the range. 

portant are 

the Mi.ssoiiri, the Yellowstone, the Platte, and the Arkan¬ 
sas on the east, and the Columbia and Colorado on the 
west. 

On the peaks and in the gorges of the mountains are lodged im¬ 
mense quantities of snow. The melting of this snow in warm 
weather feeds the rivers on each slope, and prevents them from 
running dry in summer. 

4. Irrigation.—Descending from a great elevation, the 
waters of the rivers are readily applied to the purposes of 
artificial irrigation. 


In summer large areas of them are covered with grass, which, uncut 
becomes self-made hay. 

7. New Mexico was formerly a part of Mexico and was set¬ 
tled by emigrants from that country. Many of the people still 
speak Spanish. There are many Indian villages in the State 
consisting of pueblos; that is, large buildings several stories high 
made of sun-dried bricks. The stories are arranged in terraces 
and the rooms are entered by ladders from the roof or from 
the ground. 

The leading industries of the State are stock raising 
and miuiug. Copper and lead are smelted, coal is abun¬ 
dant, and there are numerous gold and silver mines. 

New Mexico lies in a region of scanty rain'fall, but wherever water 
is obtainable for irrigation the soil is found to be fertile ind 
very productive of corn, wheat, and fruits. Cattle raising, vool 
growing, and the culture of gra 2 )es and fruits are important 
industries. Agriculture is growing in inijjortance. 

8. Cities.— 
Santa Fe, the 
capital, is G,84(> 
feet above the 
sea level. It was 
founded by the 
Spaniards in 
1582 on the site 
of a pueblo vil¬ 
lage, and is the 
^ second oldest 

Mount Sopris, Colorado ^ and the valley of Roaring Fork,—A ranch may be ^ 

seen on the right of the picture, City lH til©; 


This is necessary throughout the Rocky Mountain region, owing to 
the very scanty rainfall. Water is led or pumped from the uj^jer 
courses of rivers into reservoirs, from which it is jiiped to channels 
cut througli the fields of growing crops. The fields are flooded from 
three to five times during the growth of the ci’ops. 

6. Climate.—The climate is remarkably dry and bracing. 

MAP STUDIES.—^What States are crossed by the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains? By the Cascade IMountains ? By the Sierra Nevada? Where 
do the Green, AVhite, and other tributaries of the Colorado rise ? 
What States are separated hy the Columbia ? Into what does this river 
flow ? Through what range does it break ? 

New Mexico.—What riv'ers traverse New Mexico ? In what direc¬ 
tion do they flow ? Where is the cajiital? 

Colorado.—Where is Pike’s Peak ? North Park ? Middle ? South ? 
San Luis? In what direction does the North Platte flow? Tl’.e South 
Platte ? The Arkansas ? Rio Grande ? Grand ? Where is the capital ? 

Wyoming.—Where are the Wind River Mountains ? The Sweet 
Water? Big Horn? Black Hills? Where is Fremont’s Peak? Yellow¬ 
stone National Park ? What rivers rise in this park ? What lake in it ? 
WTiat and where is the capital ? 

Montana.—What range separates Montana from Idaho ? W^hat lake 
in the northwestern part ? What two rivers traverse this State in an 
eastei'ly direction ? 'What river flows w^esterly into the Columbia ? What 
Indian tribes in Montana ? What and w'here is the capital ? 

Nevada.—What is the longest river in Nevada ? Into what lake does 
it flow ? 'Where are two desert regions ? Where is the capital ? Virginia 
City? 


United States. The houses are chiefly of adobe (sun-dried brick). 
Albuquerque, the largest city, is in a fruit-growing region. It 
is at a junction of railroads and is the most imjjortant trading 
center. It is the seat of the University of New' ]>Iexico. 

Las Vegas has become noted as a liealth resort on account of 


Arizona. —What river on the west ? \Vhat river in the south ? What 
and where is the capital ? Where is the Grand Canon ? Tucson ? 

Utah. —What two mountain ranges in Utah ? What great lake ? 
What lake south of Great Salt ? Where is the Green River ? Salt 
Lake City ? Ogden ? 

Idaho.—What mountains form the northeast boundary ? The w'est- 
ern ? What river crosses the southern ])art of the State? Where is 
the Salmon river ? The capital ? Montpelier ? Weiser ? 

California.— What range of mountains near the coast? What range 
east ? Where is Mount Shasta ? Mt. Whitney ? What river forms 
part of the eastern boundary ? What two drain the valley of Cali¬ 
fornia ? Direction ? Where is the cajntal ? San Francisco ? Los 
Angeles ? San Diego ? Santa Barbara ? Stockton ? Oakland ? 

Oregon.— What mountain range crosses the State ? What river 
forms part of the northern boundary ? The eastern ? Which breaks 
through the Cascade range ? Which flow north into the Columbia ? 
Where is Mt. Hood ? The capital ? Portland ? Oregon City ? Astoria ? 

Washington. —By what mountains is Washington crossed ? Where 
is Mt. St. Helens ? Mt. Adams? Mt. Baker? Rainier ? Puget Sound? 
Strait of Juan de Fuca ? What river drains and partly bounds Wash¬ 
ington ? Where is the capital ? Seattle ? Tacoma ? Spokane ? 


















tncouver 


i^aria* 


Ft.Assiniboj 




T&coma ( 


WaU*r 




3l06CdV^_ ^ 

^:eyrt3t/n <; 




. HELENA^ 

ll^rl«ds» 

'^*lkwTU\« 


T 

>.. A • • 

Uip*burg 

lacooda* 


Xymatill^ 


[t.Idahe^ 


01^7 " 

rJ^SAlEM ^ 

' 

^Ihiioy mi 


milbn 


City, 


Bu£fal<jf/ S 


^ajibCit y 


^©Uejn/# 


PocateUb* 


D0ugias 


Lajjlder 


^ElJad Ci^: 


iKa^vlins' 


} •Logaal 
JBox Eldei 
f* Brigbamjl 
'^gden \ 


che^mh' 


Saitil>aki 


BattJe Mt. 


T6oele« 

SpanUhForll 

IJureka*. 


ighlands 

^EHVER 


^ayson 

•pin iafrftJit. 


Glenw< 


Eureka 


v.l-?^cer 


'AtSON CITY 


Sevier 


lUmore^ 


Santa 


Guunli 


Aurora 

S^onopah 


N LUIS 
PARK 


ColdfieJd 


^ Pioeho* 


Silverton# 

, ^ •Imco 


Parowan 


^oTle 




Doraiig^ 


n Jucit\. 


Pahtvnaffot L. 


■Wontere’ 


Pullfr<^ 


'tyndtJl 

jj^hitne^ 


WHITE ME6A 


Cbaricstoo 

Peak 




Gallup 


San Eu 


.'^Yingate 


terriUos ^ 
»8aoFedi^ 


'^^kersfiP^^ 


Mineral Park 


San FraneUco Ht< 


Flagstaff^ 


.Swiuuer 


Eonip<fe 

■CONCePTl^ 


Jerome *'-» 

*Tf ■ ^ 


ubre; 


Wttlte 
' Oa^s 


Socorro, 


i Bernardino 

Mt. 

San Bernardino 


CaiwP 


Sonoma^ 


M'icken'>® 


Anab©^ 


Ft.Stantpn; 


^etaluxni 


Ehre iberg 


Globe 


I^.WcRa® 


Carlos 


M •KlncoA 
ard ^^Ft.Sclden 

Cruces 

/ HeslU ^ -• 

-nf--""^'^ElPftso 


Floren 


(atlona^J 


Yuma 


Mt^Diablo 


tT* FruUral* 


lWUcox 


Tucson' 


,Purt I^bel 


l^naon 

Tombstoik 


0(xUforn^ 


Santa Clara 


Longitude 


lU West 


from 111 


Greenwich 


ROCKY MOUNTAIN 

AND 

PACIFIC STATES. 


S^S'Ai.E nr ^|.LES 


- 

Qcldtn 

San Frances 

o ^ 


Longitude 


West 


from 


Washington 


SAN FRANCISCO BAY and vicinity 


f20 MILES 



































































































































76 


COLORADO, WYOMING, AND MONTANA. 


corner of Wyoming, is a tract of land 55 by 65 miles, set apart by 
Congress as a national park, or pleasure ground. It is remarkable 
for its lakes and waterfalls, its deep canyons, boiling springs, and 
gej^sers. 

The Old Faithful geyser spouts every fifty-five minutes and sends up 
a stream of water 150 feet high. The canyon of the Yellowstone 
is a gorge from 1,000 to 1,200 feet deep. 

Rich coal-beds are found in many parts of the State, and valu¬ 
able deposits of gold, silver, copper, iron, and petroleum. 

The soil in the river valleys, wherever irrigation is employed, 
produces abundant crops of grain. The United States Govern¬ 
ment has built enormous irrigation works on its public lands. 





Silver bara^ called hulliont at the amelter in Leadville. 

which are being opened to the public to settle on and purchase. 
Grazing is an important industry. 

Wyoming ranks second in the amount of wool produced yearly. 

12. Cities.— Cheyenne (^shl-en'}, the capital, is a great cattle 
market. Liarainie is the seat of the State University. Sheridan 
and Rock Springs are the leading coal-mining centers. Rawlins 
and Caspar ship much wool. Evanston has coal mining and 
stock-raising interests. 

13. Montana.—Montana ranks high among the States in the 
production of copper. It abounds also in mines of gold, silver, and 
lead. The river 
valleys have a 
fertile soil and 
rich pasturage. 

Stock-raisingand 
wool-g rowing 
are important in¬ 
dustries. 

In the center of 
the State are 
the Great 

Falls of the ^ ^ j i ^ 

. . A field of howldera in northern Colorado. These have been brought 

JVllSSOUri river, down from the mountains by glaciers, one of which may be seen on 
among the Long^s Peak, in the distance. 

most picturesque in America. The head of navigation of the Missouri 
is at Fort Benton, about 2,500 miles above St. Louis, but navi¬ 
gation is tedious and difficult. The voyage up takes sixty days; 
down, ten or twelve. 




its hot springs. 
It is in a wool¬ 
growing district. 
Zuni is an In¬ 
dian village on 
a reservation ; 
near it are some 
remarkable ruins 
of pueblos which 
were once inhab¬ 
ited by people of 
a much higher 

The Portals; canyon of the Grand river, Colo. This river has cut its civilizatioU than 
%oay for thousands of feet through ihe sand atone rock. Notice how the , t, c £ 

cliffs are worn away by the action of the weather. tuRt 01 tiny 01 

the Indian tribes which were found in the United States. 

9. Colorado.—Colorado contains several of the highest and most 
noted peaks of the Rocky Mountains, and immense elevated valleys 
called parks. These parks are enclosed by lofty mountains. The 
largest exceeds in size the State of Connecticut. 

Among the moimtairis of this State are the head-springs of four large 
rivers; namely, the Coloi-ado, flowing west into the Pacific; the South 
Platte, flowing in the oxjposite direction to join the Missouri; the 
Rio Grande, and the Arkansas. . 

Colorado is rich in gold, silver, copper, coal, and iron. It is one 
of the leading States in gold production, and ranks high in silver 



A view of Cripple Creek, in the heart of the Rockies in Colorado. 


and lead. It was formerly considered too arid for agriciilture, 
but by means of irrigation and improved methods of cultivation, 
Colorado now produces from her farms greater values than from 
her mines. Alfalfa, wheat, and sugar beets are important crops. 

10. Cities.— Denver, the capital, is the largest city in the 
Rocky Mountain region. It is a railroad and commercial center. 
Packed meat, refined lead and copper, printed matter, and machin¬ 
ery are among its varied manufactures. Pueblo is an important 
city, with smelting-works, rolling-mills, and machine shops. Colo¬ 
rado Springs is widely known as a health resort. Trinidad has 
agricultural and coal-mining interests. Boulder is a mining 
center and the seat of the State University. 

At Manitou, near Colorado Springs, are four remarkable mineral | 
.springs. At Golden is located the State School of Mines. 

11. Wyoming.—Wyoming, like Colorado, is a region of ele¬ 
vated ])lains, mountains, and valleys. 

It contains the sources of the Missouri, the Columbia, and the 
Green rivers. 

The Yellowstone National Park, situated in the northwestern 


14. Cities.— Helena, the capital and chief commercial center 
of Montana, is beautifully located on the foothills of the Rocky 
Mountains. It has large gold mining interests, and is the chief 
market for mining machinery. Butte is noted for its great output 
of copper ore. Anaconda has the largest copper-smelting works in 
the world. Great Falls is built at the falls of the Missouri river 























THE PLATEAU KEGIOX: NEVADA AND ARIZONA. 


and is engaged in wool shipping and the 
reduction of copper ore. Missoula is in a 
mining and farming region, and is the seat 
of the State L'’niversity. Itilling-s is a ship¬ 
ping point for live stoek, and Kalispell is 
in an agricultural and lumbering region. 

I?ov iew Topics.—States of the Rocky iMoun- 
taiii region. Describe tlie surface. Rivers. tVliy is 
irrigation necessary on the Great Plains? Describe 
the method. The climate. The cliief resources. 
By whom was New Mexico settled ? Chief products. 
Santa Fe. Las Vegas. Zuni. The im)uiitain peaks 
of Colorado. The great Parks. River.s, .Mineral 
productions. Agriculture. Denver’. Leadville. 
Colorado Springs. What Stale rloes Wyoming re¬ 
semble in surface ? Yellowstone National Park. 
Describe the mineral resources of Wyoming. The 
river valleys. The capital. In what does Montana 
abound? What portions of the State are fertile? 
The Missouri river is how far navigable ? What are 
the chief trade-centers ? 



XIAT. THE PEATEAl' REGION. 


Grand Canyon of the Colorado in Arizona. Here the swift current 
has cut its way through the sandstone rock to a depth of about 6,000 
feet. Notice the layers or strata of rock, and the crumbled rock or 
talus which has gathered a the foot of the cliffs and is washed away 
at high water. [Copyright, Detroit Photo. Co.] 


Owing to the almost entire absence of moisture, 
changes in temperature are very rapid. It is 
often 70° or 80° at noon, and below freezing- 
point at sunrise. 

4. Minerals.—The hills and mountains 
that rise up from this plateau are stored 
with rich mineral deposits. Silver, gold, 
copper, lead, and other metals are found, 
with beds of salt and soda of unknown 
extent. The chief industry, therefore, is 
mining. 

5. Vegetation.—Large areas of this re¬ 
gion are barren wastes covered with gray 
sage-brush and cactus. The river valleys, 
however, if irrigated, are extremely fertile. 

6. Nevada.—Nevada occupies a large 
part of the Great Basin. Its mines con¬ 
stituted its chief source of wealth. Until 
recently, they produced a large part of all 
the silver annually mined in the United 
States. Gold mining is now more profitable. 


1. The Plateau Region lies between 
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. 


I Zinc, copper, and lead are also mined. 




It is several thousand feet above the sea, and varies in breadth 
from 300 to 700 miles. 

It contains the four States of Nevada, Idaho, l^ah, and Ari¬ 
zona. 

2. Surface.—The surface is very rugged. Mountain ranges 
traverse it in various directions. The Wasatcli, one of the lofti¬ 
est of these ranges, lies between the Great Basin and the Plateau 
of the Colorado. The Great Basin is 3,000 feet lower than the 
Plateau of the Colorado. It embraces the western part of Utah 
and nearly the whole of Nevada. 

Much of this region is barren, oc¬ 
cupied by sandy and salty lands 
and salt lakes. 

Among its remarkable features are 
the gorges called canyons, often 
several thousaml feet in depth. 

Tliey liave been cut by the rivers 
til rough layers of rock. 


The Muddy Salt Mine is the largest deposit of rock-salt known in the 
country. It is two 
square miles in area. 

Some of the valleys are 
very fertile, and stock- 
raising is one of the 
chief occupations. Mo.st 
of the State, however, 
is unsuitable for agri¬ 
culture. except where 
water can be obtained. 


Irrigation. Sometimes a reservoir to hold 
water for irrigation is made bg building a 
dam across a stream. Sometimes the water 
has to be pumped into a reservoir or into a 
flume, as shown in this view at Elgin, I'lah. 
This water wheel runs the pump for irrigation. 

7. Cities. —Reno, the largest 
city, is a commercial, manufac¬ 
turing, and educational center. 
Carson City, the capital of the 
State, is near gold and silver 
for the ex- 
Tlie 


Irrigated field at Greenville farm, Utah. Notice the pipe or flume through which i, ,, -n , 

the water is brought to the field, and the number of smaller pipes which distribute it muies, aiUl Jias mills 
over the field. . - , 

traction ot these metals 

The most noted is the Grand 
Canyon of the Colorado. 

It is more than .300 miles 
long, and from 3,000 to 
6,000 feet deep. 


3. The climate 

The simplest method of irrigeding a field marked bv great dryueSS. 

water in through a ditch and to flood each part of the field Jo t. ^ 

in succession by building a little dam across the ditch, as , • fUg RockvMoUntaiu 

shown in the picture. ^ 

region, artificial irrigation is resorted to on an immense scale. 

The prevailing winds come from the Pacific laden with moisture, 
but in crossing tlie cold peaks of the Sierra Nevada they are chilled, 
and deposit their moisture as rain or snow. When, therefore, they 
reach the Plateau region they are dry winds. 


hot springs in this neighborliond make it a resort for invalids. 
Goldfield is the center of a rich gold-mining district. Tonopah 
is noted for its gold and silver mines. 

8. Arizona.—The northeastern part of Arizona is a high 
])lateau ranging from .5,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level, with 
ranges of mountains formed by volcanic action. This part of 
the State has rainfall sufficient for cattle and sheep raising, which 
is an iinportant and lucrative industry. 

The southwestern part of the State is much lower and has even 
less rain than the more elevated portion, but by irrigation it is be¬ 
coming one of the best fruit-growing regions of the country. 

The most important occupation is luining, and the State ranks 























78 


UTAH AND IDAHO.—COAST HEGION. 



high in the production of copper, and has beside extensive gold, 
silver, and lead mines. The smelting and refining of copper ores 
is the most important industry. 

Cities— Phoenix, the capital and largest city, is in the center 




alfalfa, and sugar beets. The manufacture of beet sugar is 
growing in importance. 

Cities. — Boise, the capital, manufactures iron and lumber, is a 


Copyright, Detroit Photo Co. 
Pacific Ocean and the rocky coast at San Francisco. The city is on a peninsula about six mUes 
wide enclosed by the Pacific Ocean, San Francisco Bay and the strait called the Golden Gate, which 
connects them. The wharves are on the bay, which furnishes the best harbor on the Pacific Coast. 




of a well-irrigated farming region. Tucson is the seat of the 
University of Arizona. It is an important mining center and 
has smelters for the reduction of gold, silver, and copper ores. 
Both cities have a large trade in mining 
outfits and machinery. 

9. Utah. —Utah is traversed from north 
to south in its eastern half by the Wasatch 
Mountains. At their western base lies the 
Great Salt Lake, 75 miles long. The western 
part of the State lies in the Great Basin. 

The rainfall throughout the State is very 
slight, but by irrigation the agricultural re¬ 
sources have been wonderfully developed. 

Beet raising and sugar manufacture are pro¬ 
fitable industries. Sheep raising is very im¬ 
portant, and much wool is exported. 

Mines of gold, silver, lead, and copper are 
extensively worked. 

Utah is inhabited largely by the Mormons 
or Latter-day Saints. 

Cities. — Salt Lake City is the capital and the largest and most 
important city in the State. It has wide, beautiful streets and is the 
center of the Mormon religion. It is the meeting point of several 
trunk lines of railway and commands the trade of an extensive 
and fertile region. Ogden is an educational center and has 
factories for the production of packed meat, canned goods, beet 
sugar, and flour. 

Provo, in an agricultural region, has woolen and knitting mills. 
Logan is located in a fertile valley. The State Agricultural 
College and a beet-sugar factory are located here. 

10. Idaho.—Idaho is in large part mountainous. It ranks 
high in the United States in the production of lead, and large 
amounts of gold, silver, and copper are mined. Many other 
minerals are found, but are not extensively mined. 

The State is well covered with valuable pine forests from 
which much lumber is cut. Sheep and cattle raising are very 
important industries. The soil is ricli, but the rainfall is slight. 
Many private irrigating canals have been constructed, and several 
million acres have been reclaimed and made crop producing. The 
chief agricultural products of the State are wheat, oats, barley, 


A rail oj toga in tneijoLumoia river, uTegon. 


shipping point for wool, hides, and fruit. A government Assay 
Office is located here. Pocatello is an important commercial center. 

Review Topics.— Describe tlie Plateau. Region. The canyons. Climate. 

Industries. The vegetation. Nevada. Its silver. Describe 
the Muddy Salt Mine. Why is the State not adapted to 
agriculture? Describe Virginia City. The capital. De¬ 
scribe surface of Arizona. Its rainfall. Industries. 
Centers of trade. What mountains traverse Utah ? 
Locate Great Salt Lake. The mineral productions. 
Agricultural resources. The inhabitants. Capital. 
Ogden. Describe Idaho. Its resources. Capital. Other 
leading towns and their industries. 

XLIII. COAST BEGIOX. 

1. This region embraces California, Ore¬ 
gon, AVashington, and Alaska. Excluding 
Alaska, it is traversed from north to south 
by the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. 
The low Coast range stretches along the 
shore. Between these ranges lie great 
valleys. They form the most important 
parts of this region. 

The principal rivers are the Columbia, which, in the lower portion of 
its course, forms the boundary between Oregon and Washington, 
and the Sacramento and San Joaquin (san tvah-keen'), which 
traverse the Valley of California. 

2. Climate. —The climate of this region is widely different 
from the climate of the Atlantic coast in the same latitude. This 
is caused by the prevailing winds. In both regions these are 
westerly. But on 
the Atlantic side 
they are from the 
land, and in win¬ 
ter are cold; on 
the Pacific side 
they come from 
the sea, and are 
warm and moist. 

Oregon is in the 
same latitude as 
the New Eng¬ 
land States. Raisins, prunes, and apricots are dried in the open air in California. 
__ , . . . This shows an orchard, and the process of drying apricots in the 

AVasnington is, San Joaquin Valley, California. 























CALlFOliNIA. 


79 





for the most part, much farther north. In New England the farmers 
have to house and feed their cattle all the winter, while in Oregon 
and Washington the pastures are green all the year round. The 
west winds from the ocean give these States a mild, moist 
climate. 

Summer and winter in California are called respectively the dry 
season and the rainy season. In summer, for weeks together, not 
a di'op of rain falls. In Oregon and Washington, however, the 
summer rains are somewhat more copious, and the country is well 
watered. 

3. ResovLTces. —The deposits of gold and quicksilver in this 
region are among the richest in the world. The soil of the val¬ 
leys is marvellously productive. 

The fruits, flowers, and vegetables are famous for their beauty and 
size. Sixteen hundred pounds of hops to the acre are not unu.sua] 
returns. Immense herds of cattle and flocks of sheep find rich 
pasturage. 

The slope.s of the mountains are covered with forests of pine, fir. 
and cedar. 

4. California is the oldest of 
the Pacific States. 

The Spanish Franciscan Friars 
established missions or settle¬ 
ments in it at an early day. 

But it was thinly settled until, 
in 1848, it was ceded by Mexico 
to the United States. Soon after 
this gold was discovered, and 
people flocked to the mines from 
all parts of the world. 

California is a leading state 
in the production of gold, and is 
one of the chief sources of the 
world’s supply of quicksilver. 

Much of the gold dug from mines is embedded in hard rock. This rock is broken up into 

AgriCnlture is by tar the xnost are crushed into powder in a" stamping 7nill.” The stamps are immense 

'' pestles, weighing over 1,000 pounds, which are raised by machinery and are dropped upon the 

imnortnnt indimtw of thp .Stnfp rock, crushing %t into powder. Flouring water washes the powdered rock over copper plates 
J ■ covered with quicksilver, to which most of the gold adheres, while the sand is washed on to the 






TViP ifrifTti fpri Ifindc a rp larrrpr* in boxes which you can see at the end of the plates. The quicksilver is evaporated, leaving the 
lire llUj^aueu. lauus aie lalgei m pure gold. Some gold is left in the sand and is taken out by a process called “ concentratton." 

aggregate area than Connecticut. Barley, wheat, alfalfa, potatoes, 
hops, and the sugar beet are extensively grown. Much wheat and 
barley of excellent quality are shipped to Europe by the Pan¬ 
ama route. It is also a fine grazing country. 

Oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, and grapes flourish luxuri¬ 
antly in south¬ 
ern California. 

The production 
of raisins has 
become great 
enough to sup¬ 
ply the whole 
United States. 

California is 
the leading 
State of tlie 


The harbor of San Francisco, showing San Francisco Bay, over which most of the freigtu ana 
passengers coming by rail to the city cross from Oakland on ferryboats. 

Some of the largest and loftiest trees in tlie world are found 
on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. They are gigantic ever¬ 
greens. Many of them have each a diameter of 40 feet, and 
are more than 300 feet, in height. 

6. Cities.—San Francisco is 

one of the most important .sea¬ 
ports on the American shore of 
the Pacific. Steamers connect it 
with China, Japan, Australia, 
Alaska, and the Hawaiian and 
Philippine Islands. 

By means of these steamship lines and 
the Pacific railroads a large and grow¬ 
ing trade is carried on between these 
countries and the United States. Most 
of the silk and tea brought from 
China and Japan come by way of San 
Francisco. Raw sugar is brought 
from the Hawaiian Islands and re¬ 
fined. Other leading industries are 
meat-packing and the manufacture of 
iron and steel products. 

Lios Angeles, the first city in 
size, is the center of a rich oil 


Mi. Shasta, California, which was once an active volcano. 
[Copyright, Detroit Photo Co.] 


Union in the production of both fruit and beet sugar, 
5. California is noted for its remarkable scenery. 


and fruit region, mannfactnres packed meat, machinery, lumber, 
and flour. The city includes the port of San Pedro. Oakland 
is a railroad terminus, whence freight and passengers go by ferry 
to San Francisco. Lumber working, and canning are its leading 
industries. Sacramento, the capital, has machine shops and 
steel works, and a large wheat and flour trade. 


The Yosemite (yo-sem'i-te) Valley is a gorge of singular grandeur. 
Its rockj'^ walls are from three to five thousand feet in height. The 
Merced River flows through it, and makes a series of wonderful 
cascades, one of which, the Nevada Fall, is six hundred feet high. 


Petroleum wells near Pasadena. 

Berkeley, on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay, is the seat of the 
University of California. It has machine shops, oil, and fertilizer 




















80 


OREGON AND WASHINGTON. 






works. San Diego has a good harbor, and exports wheat and fruit. 
Pasadena is a noted winter resort and fruit-growing center. San 
«Jos6, in the beautiful Santa Clara Valley, has large fruit canning, 
packing, and drying establishments; nearby are the Stanford Uni¬ 
versity and the famous Lick Observatory. Fresno is located in 
the fruit-growing region. Its chief industries are the drying and can¬ 
ning of fruits, olives, and figs, and the manufacture of olive-oil, soap, 
and lumber. Alameda is engaged in shipbuilding and in the manu¬ 
facture of lumber and clay products. Stockton is situated in a 
very fertile plain. It is an important center of trade, and has large 
flour mills. 

7. Oregon.— The State is in the same latitude as New Eng¬ 
land, but the climate in the eastern part is not unlike that of 
Maryland, while west of the Cascade Mountains it is even milder 
than Maryland in winter, but not so oppressively warm in summer. 

The valle 3 '^s that lie between the Cascade and Coast ranges 
are very fertile and yield abundant crops of cereals and fruits 
without irrigation, and lai’ger areas in the eastern part of the 
State are being brought under a high state of cultivation 
by irrigation. Hops and hay are valuable crops. 

Stock-raising and wool-growing are important industries. 

The western slopes of the Cascade and Coast ranges are covered with 
vast forests, and the cutting of timber 
is a leading occupation. 

The yield of gold and silver is important. 

Coal and iron are abundant. 

The streams abound with excellent fish. 

Immense quantities of salmon are 
canned and exported. 

Cities. — Portland, the largest city, 
is at the head of ocean navigation on 
the Willamette river and is an im¬ 
portant railway terminus. It exports 
more lumber than any other port in 
the world; flour, salmon, dairy prod¬ 
ucts, and wool are next in importance. 

Salem, the capital of the State, has industries similar to those 
of Portland. Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia river, is 
noted for the preserving of salmon. 

8. Washington.— The part of the State east of the Cascade 
Range lies in the Columbia plateau. It is a fine agricultural 
region and raises much wheat and other grains, hay, potatoes, 
hops, and fruit. 

The western part of the State contains extensive forests 
of pine, cedar, hemlock, and spruce. The manufacture 


Shipping wheat. — Pendleton, Ore. 

hundred miles into the interior. An abundance of coal is 
found in the vicinity, making Washington the largest coal- 
producing State on the Pacific coast. The waters of the 
sound and its tributary rivers swarm with salmon and 
other fish. The preserving and shipping of fish is one of the 
large indinstries. 

Cities.— Seattle is the largest city and chief seaport. It is the 
terminus of three great trans-continental railway lines and has 
steamship connections with all parts of the world. Its great 

industries are meatpacking, flour mill¬ 
ing, and the- handling of lumber and 
coal. Seattle is the seat of the State 
Uidversity. Spokane, the second city 
in size, is a great railway junction point. 
It has fine water power and extensive 
manufactures of lumber and iron. 
Tacoma is a very important railway 
center and seaport. It ships wheat, 
lumber, and coal. Tacoma has large 
lumber mills. Walla Walla is situated 
in the center of a very productive 
wheat and fruit-growing region. 

Olympia, near tlie southern end of Puget Sound, is the capital of the 
State. It has fishing and lumber industries. Bellingham, a flour¬ 
ishing town in the northwestern part of the State, has lumber and 
iron industries and fish canneries. Everett manufactures lumber, 
iron, and furniture. 


The tvater front at Tacoma.—Vessels loading v/ith wheat from storehouses 
on the wharf. 


.4 field of alfalfa at Union^ Ore. Alfalfa is a forage -plant well adapted to 
dry climate. With irrigation, five or six crops can he raised each year. 


and export of 
lumber is the 
most impor¬ 
tant industry 
in the State. 

Puget 
Sound, with 
its connec- 
tions, fur¬ 
nishes navi¬ 
gable routes 
for a dis¬ 
tance of 
nearly two 


Harbor of Seattle.—Steamer leaving for Alaska. 

9. Alaska.—The territor}' of Alaska was purchased from Rus¬ 
sia in 1867. Its shores are bathed by the Japan Current, a 
mighty current in the Pacific resembling the Gulf Stream 
in the Atlantic. The westerly Avinds that blow over this 
current temper the climate of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, 
as the winds from the Gulf Stream temper that of Norway 
and Iceland. 






















ALASKA.—THE ISLAND REGIONS. 


81 





JuneaUt tne capital of Alaska. 

Mt. St. Elias, 18,010 feet liig’Ii, with its everlastino' cap of snow, 
stands as a landmark between Alaska and the British Possessions. 

The Yukoii is one of the largest rivers in North America. It is 80 miles 
wide at its mouth, and 10 miles wide 800 miles above its mouth. 

The prevailing: winds are westerly. Coming from the sea, they give 
a moist climate to the coast, in the neighborhood of which heavy 
forests of spruce, fir, cedar, hemlock, alder, and pine are found. 

Grass grows luxuriantly in places, but the snminers are too short 
and cool for general agriculture. 

Coal and other minerals are abundant. The gol«l deposits are 
among the riche.st in the world. 

The inhabitants are mainly Eskimos and so-called Indians, who, 
however, differ 
greatly from 
the Indians in 
other parts of 
the United 
States. They 
live by fishing, 
and hunt seals, 
sea-otters, mar¬ 
tens, foxes, and 
bears. The fur- 
seal fishery is 
the most valu- 

able in the ^ ^ ^ 

11 rni Cape Nome. Notice the camp xn the foreground where gold xs being 

world. ill6 mined on the shore. 

seals are taken on and near the Pribilof Islands. The cod, salmon, 

and herring fisheries also are of immense value. At certain seasons 

the salmon fairly choke up the fresh-water streams on their way to 

the spawning gi’ounds. 

The capital is Juneau. Nome and Juneau are mining centers. 

The Aleutian I.slaiids are volcanic and treele.ss; the nativms live in 

harabaras, struc¬ 
tures half above 
and half below the 
ground. They 
make the frames 
of their walrus- 
skin canoes of 
wood drifted from 
Asia and cast upon 
their shores by the 
Japan Current. 


Review Topics. 

—States in the Coast 
^ ^ Region. Mountains. 

Placer mining in Alaska. The sand and gravel are washed down 

through a long trough which has slats across the bottom. The water Rivers. Describe the 
carries the. sand arid granel away, and the gold, being very heavy, is , Pr>m ro 

caught by the slats and picked out by hand. eilinate. t^ompare 

New England and Oregon. The seasons in California ? Mineral deposits ? 
Agricultural resources? The forests? Settlement of California? Its gold prod¬ 
uct ? Most important industry ? Leading agricultural products ? Fruits ? 
Wine and wool product? Describe the Yosemite Valley. The great tiees- 


Describe San Francisco. Other important cities. What of tiie climate of 
Oregon ? Products ? Most fertile part ? The capital ? Washington. Alaska. 


XLIIIa. THE ISLAND REGIONS. 


1. The Island Regions belonging to the United States are 
Porto Rico ; St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. John ; the Hawaiian 
I.slands ; the Philipi)ines; Guam, one of the Ladrones; and 
Tutuila and Manua, islands of the Samoan group. 

2. Situation and Climate. —Porto Rico, St. Thomas, St. 
Croix, and St. John are in the Atlantic Ocean; the others are in 
the Pacific. All are within the tropics, and within the region of 
the trade winds. Their climate and productions are naturally 
much alike. 



The plaza or public square of a town in Porto Rico. Notice the coffee spread out to dry. 


3. Porto Rico is the smallest of the four “ Greater Antilles.” 

4. Rainfall. —Mountains cross the island from east to west, 
and greatly influence the rains. Driven up the mountain slopes, 
the warm, moist, northeast trade wind rises into cool atmospheric 
regions. A copious rainfall is the result. The northern part of 
the island is watered by many streams, yet sometimes the south¬ 
ern part, screened by the mountains, suffers from drought. 

5. Products. —Tree ferns and cocoanut palms wave in the 
breeze ; orange bloom scents the air; sugar-cane flourishes in the 
lowlands; the coffee-tree decks the hillsides, to the height of a 
tliousand feet. Bananas grow everywhere and form a staple food. 
The sugar, coffee, and tobacco plantations employ thousands of 
laborers and yield tlie chief exports of tlie island. 

6. Animals. —Of the wild animals of Porto Pico none are 
beasts of prey. No poisonous snakes are found. 

7. The exports are sugar, tobacco, cigars, coffee, and tropical 
fruits. The imports from the United States are rice, cotton 
goods, preserved meats, flour, and iron and steel goods. 

8. The Population is nearly equally divided between persons 



4 Street in Ponce, Porto Rico. The trees and shrubbery stand in the patio, or 
oj a private residence.' 


court. 
































82 


THE ISLAND LEGIONS: HAWAII. 




HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


SCALE OF MILES 


Hanalei, 


Nawiliw 


C.Kaw lihoa^j 


Bolinaq, 


Halawa Pt 

ItMOKUO NIKI. 


POLILLO I, 


Haleak] 


LUBA'NG 


JcatanN 
DUANES t.‘<v 


Honokaa 


/^k* BURIAS^ 

ORD • Bur 

, ^^omblor 

^TABu^ ^Palai 
jS SIBUVAN * 


Kawail^ae' 


CALAMIANES 


CUYOS 
IS. * 


lihikao 


^Sa^f ikMALHOU 


iibou 


C^naluu 

[oDtiapo 


lACTAN 


blNAGAT 


.aalualu 


‘SURIGAO 


Merizol 


CAGAYAN IS. 


Duma^ 


Dapitair 


Cottabai 


Zamboanga' 


Strait 

S^ASILAN 


'^C.St.Augustw^ 


BRITIS 


Mauna Kea, a volcano on Hawaii, and the city and Sfiaport of Hilo. 

10. Hawaii comprises eight large mountainous islands and 
a number of mere rocky islets. The entire group has been 
thrown up by volcanic action, and nearly all of the islands have 
extensive coral reefs near their shores. On Hawaii, the largest 
of the islands, the volcanoes are still active. 


PHILIPPINE 

ISLANDS 


Balintang Channel ^ 


SCALE OF MILES 


g BABUYAN IS. 

. C.Bngano 


Kahuhu Pt. 


‘♦V&Wlua , 

•' .A*'* 

f-"«-5^Kaneohe C'^' 
tj K^^^Vaimanalo 


naena Pt,^ 
Waianae 


Barbers Pt 








Q+O- 


SCARBOROUGH 

BANK 


Kauiki Head 


Mahiikom^ 


Kibo^a 
Keahole Pt. O 
KailuB IF 
Kealakekt: ai 
Kauba to 


LoQg.£.f r.Greenw. 145 


Hitid an Pt. 
^BitA.Rosal 


H a.Rosa Pk» 

a|ia 


PALAWAN 


GUAM 

SAME SCALE AS HAWAII 


Long. 


West 


from 


Greenwich 


"Puerto O 
Princesa 


^^WLABAC I. 

^alaha^^ra it 

^i^BANGUEy I. 


Ja 


Sulgj^^ i^'XC' E L E B E S 

■jaSiassi _ 

SEA « 

; ARCHIPELAGO 


8ARANGANI IS. 


\ 55^-120 ■Li>ng. East from Greenwich 


L.POATES. ENC 1 .. N.Y 


of Sjjanish origin and of the descendants of negro slaves. It num¬ 
bers over 1,000,000. The language is Spanish. A system of schools 
has been established. The people are mostly Roman Catholics. . 

Cities.— San tFiiaii, strongly fortified (pop. 71,443), and Ponce 
(pop. 41,912) are the largest cities. 

9. St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John (see map, p. 04) lie 
east of Porto Rico. They were purchased by the United States 
from Denmark. Sugar is the chief product. Charlotte Amalie, 
on St. Thomas, is important as a shipping and naval station. 


Manila Loa sometimes pours fortli rivers of red-hot lava. Kilaiiea, 
on the same island, is also active and has the lai’gest crater in the 
world. It is a basin three miles acro.ss and a thousand feet deep. 

11, Climate.—The minimum temperature is about 54°; the 
maximum, 88°. Thunderstorms seldom occur: hurricanes never^ 
The sky is remarkably cloudless. ()n its windward side, Hawaii 
has the immense rainfall of 200 inches. There is, however, less 
rain on the leeward side of the mountains. The other islands 
have al)Out 50 or 60. 

12. Products. — The sugar-cane, the ])iiiea 2 )ple, banana, and 
coffee-tree flourish. 

Peculiar to these islands ai’e the caiullenut and the taro. The ker¬ 
nels of the candlenut are so oily that the}" are used like wax for 
candles. The taro supplies the natives with their principal food. It 
has a large starchy root, which is as important in Hawaii as the 
potato with us. These islands arc capable of producing a great va¬ 
riety of grains, vegetables, and fruits; but little attention is given to 
the cultivation of any plant except the sugar-cane. Even rice, 
although it flourishes on the lowlands, is imported mainly from 
Japan. The sugar crop is large and is exported mainly to the United 
States, with which country trade is cliiefly carried on. There are no 



Borinquen. 

Agtiudilla 


(y 


.Oraod. ^..1 


CULEBRA I. 


‘INERO I, 


‘'-'^“vIe^jes 


Adjuntas/ 


Corona 
' Sim 
iCa>. 


abueoa 

Malapa)i<iua 


^^UERTOS I. 


PORTO RICO 


SCALE OF MILES 























































































































































HAWAII—THE PHILIPPINES AND GUAM. 


83 




- ^ 

-•»; -ifc. -■ '-itf |.||V*^|f ^ ® 

^ 4 ^ r ,1 


City and port of Honolulu. 

otlier exports of importance. The leading imports are flour and 
grain, metal goods, clotli, oils, provisions, and various manufactures. 

13. Animals. —The Hawaiian Islands are said to be free from 
snakes and frogs and toads. The only reptile reported is a small 
lizard. 

14. Population. —The natives are brown, and belong to the 
Malay race. Like the other branches of this family, they are 
fond of liberty, and are brave and intelligent. Taught by wliites, 
they have become Christians. 

There is a good system of public schools in the islands, and 
almost everybody can read and write. The people are aban¬ 
doning their native tongue and using 
English. 

On Molokai, one of the islands, there is 
a leper settlement set apart by the 
government for the re.sidence of the 
victims and for a general hospital and 
a nursery. 

The foreign population (Japanese, 

Chinese, Portuguese, Britons, and 
Americans) is about twice as large as 
the native. 


17. Origin. —The Philippines, like the Hawaiian Islands, are 
volcanic. Active volcanoes exist, and earthquakes occur. 

18. Minerals and Soil. —Coal, iron, and copper are the most 
important minerals; but gold, silver, mercury, and sulphur have 
been found. The soil is remarkable for its fertility, and agricul¬ 
ture is the leading pursuit. 

19. Products. —The forests contain ebony, teak, and rubber 
trees, and produce a great variety of gums, oils, and dyewoods. 
The bamboo and cocoanut palm furnish material for building, 
clothing, and food. The leading farm products are sugar cane, 
coffee, Manda hemp, tobacco, and rice. 

Of these the bemi> is the most important. It is a plant peculiar to the 
Philippines. It resembles the banana plant, and the fiber of the leaf 
is the best known material for cordage. It forms the chief export, 
coming largely to the United States. Raw sugar, copra, and tobacco 
are the next in importance. The imports from the United States 
are largely iron and steel goods, machinery, cotton goods, petroleum, 
leather goods, foods, wood products, chemicals, and vehicles. 

20. Animals. —Here, as in Madagascar, the animals known as 
lemurs are found. The boa constrictor is seen occasionally. The 
water-buffalo is the Philippine beast of all work. 

21. The Manufacturing Industries are the preparation of 
Manila bemp, and the making of ci¬ 
gars. The latter industry is carried 
on mainly at Manila, where it employs 
10,000 women. 


Plowing in the Philippines. The water-buffalo is the beast of all work. 


22. Population. —The natives are of 
the Malay and Negro races. Among 
the foreign population the Spauiard.s 
are a very important element. The 
Chinese outnumber the Spaniards. 
They are the bankers and merchants. 


Government. —The native government was formerly a mon¬ 
archy, sometimes limited, sometimes absolute. Hawaii is now 
an organized territory of the United States. 

Cities. —Honolulu, the capital and chief city, is located on a 
spacious harbor over a mile in length and admitting the largest 
vessels. It has a population of about 83,327 and a few small 
manufacturing industries. Hilo, about half the size of Honolulu, 
is on the island of Hawaii and is second in importance. It is on 
this island that Captain Cook, the discoverer of the group, was 
killed. 

15. The Philippines are a group of the East India Islands. 
They are about 600 miles from the Asiatic continent. It is esti¬ 
mated that they number more than 1,000 in number. 

• 16. Climate. —Their location in the torrid zone gives these 
islands a tropical climate. At Manila the average temperature 
for December and January, the coolest months, is 77°. 

They are, moreover, within tlie region of tlie monsoons. From 
November to April the northeast trade wind blows, and gives to 
them, as it does to India, a comparatively cool and dry season. 
Beginning in April or May, the southwest monsoon blows for about 
five months. Duidng the first three of these months it is intensely 
hot; in July, August, and September it is excessively wet. The rain¬ 
fall at Manila is 75 inches. The hot, humid months of July, August, 
September, and October are also tlie months when typhoons occur. 
These are cyclonic storms like the West India hurricanes. 


Excepting the one Mohammedan tribe called Moros, most of 
the natives are Boman Catholics. Many languages are spoken. 



Cities. — Manila, on Luzon (pop. 283,613), is the capital. Iloilo, 
on Panay, and Cebu, on Cebu, 
are important ports. 

23. Guam is an island of 
small area, but of value as a 
coaling and repairing station in 
the mid-Pacific. Docks and re¬ 
pair sho])s are to be erected by 
the government. The natives 


are Christianized Malays. 
Agaiia (pop. 7,000) is the chief 
town. 


product-s farm products, and animals. 


Review Topics. —The island re- 
ons. Porto Rico; surface, rainfall, 
products, animals, exports, and imports. 
Hawaiian Islands; people, schools, gov- 
eriunent. Honolulu. Hilo. The Phil¬ 
ippines; location, number, climate, vol¬ 
canoes, earthquakes, minerals, forest 
Exports and imports of Philippines. 


Manufacturing industries. Hemp. Manila. Guam. 


















84 


THE UNITED STATES: RAILROADS AND CANALS. 


XLIIIb. 

TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 

Advantages of Transportation Facilities.—Nothing adds more to the com¬ 
fort and prosperity of a people than the power to travel quickly from place to place 
and to transport goods cheaply and easily. To accomplish these things a vast system 
of public highways and railroads traverse the country like a fine network, reaching 
to every city, town, village, and even to every dwelling house in the entire countr)’. 
Many canals have been built to connect the waterways of the country, and to afford 
a safe passage around waterfalls and rapids. Our rivers and lakes are navigated by 
steamboats, barges, canal boats, and by every sort of craft carrying passengers and 
freight. Steamships ply along our coasts, carrying goods from port to port, and ocean 
liners cross the seas in every direction, carrying our goods to all parts of the world. 



AN EXPRESS TRAIN RUNNING SIXTY MILES AN HOUR. 


Advantages of Railroads.—The railroad, on account of the speed, regularity, 
and low rates at which freight is carried, has become the most important means of 
inland transportation. The old stage-coaches made good speed if they accomplished 
six or seven miles an hour. The early emigrants to California occupied weeks 
and months, wearily crossing the country in covered wagons, and often suffering 
from Scarcity of food and water. A car on one of our trans-continental routes occupies 
less than a week in going from ocean to ocean; and in the palace cars one can be fur¬ 
nished with every luxury. But even when we do not travel we are benefited by 
railroads. All people are either producers or consumers, and railroads are of 
advantage to both. 

How Producers are Benefited.—Productions of every description become more 
valuable when producers have convenient transportation. The grain growers of the 
Northwest, the cotton and tobacco planters of the South, the manufacturers of the 
Eastern States, and the mining population of the Rocky Mountain Region depend 
for their prosperity upon the facilities for transportation afforded them by railroads. 
We can understand how railroads benefit producers, if we consider the case of the 
farmer. It is of little use that a region is fertile, unless its products can be sent to 
market. Before we had railroads it sometimes happened that farmers a few hundred 
miles west of Chicago actually burned some of their corn as fuel because of the 
expense of getting it to market. Firewood was scarce, and the lack of trans¬ 
portation made fuel expensive ; it also made the farmer’s com of little value. To 
burn a part of the crop was cheaper than to buy fuel. The early settlers of 
Kentucky were without railroads. The Alleghenies almost barred them from the 
markets of the Atlantic Slope. Consequently, they took their crops to New Orleans, 
rafting them down the Ohio and the Mississippi. At the end of their voyage they 
sold the crop and raft and made their way home as best they might. The journey 
down and back occupied more than six months. The crops of Kentucky now reach 
a market in a less number of days. 

How Consumers are Benefited.—Not many years ago a severe famine pre¬ 
vailed in a certain section of India. Thousands of people perished from starvation. 
And yet there were other regions of India where there was abundance of food. But 
as this had to be transported chiefly in ox carts, only a little could be carried at once, 
and it took a long time to reach the famine-stricken region. If there had been 
railways connecting the district where the famine was with those places where food 
abounded, the starving people could very soon have been relieved ; and therefore 
the British Government has urgently encouraged and aided the construction of such 
railways. At present there are in India about 27,000 miles of railway. 


Railroad Traffic.—There were in the year 1830 only 23 miles of railroad in the 
United States. At present there are about 250,000 miles, or more than one- 
third of the total mileage of the world. Those who live in towns through which 
important railroads pass can form some idea of the enorfhous amount of business 
done by them. Those going east carry cattle and grain ; those from Missouri and 
Kentucky, hemp and tobacco ; from Ohio and adjoining States they carry pork, lard, 
and flour. Some are coal trains, others are composed of refrigerator cars carrying 
fresh meat and fruit. Other cars support large iron tanks containing petroleum. 

The railroads of the South transport a great deal of cotton to the ports of the Gulf 
or to those of the Atlantic seaboard. Many run northward freighted with oranges, 
strawberries and melons grown in the sunny South. 

Trains going westward are not, as a rule, so heavily laden as those going eastward. 
They transport manufactures from the Eastern States, or imports from foreign 
countries. 


Canals.—Before the days of railroads, the waterways of the country were the 
chief means of inland transportation. Good highways were few, and only to be 
found in the older and more settled parts of the country. 

In the early part of the nineteenth century a great westward movement of popu¬ 
lation began. Thousands of people left their homes in the older colonies and crossed 
the Blue Ridge and Allegheny Mountains into the rich farming lands of the Ohio 
Valley. There were no bridges over the streams, the roads were bad, and it was 
very expensive to transport the tools, household goods, and supplies that were 
needed to build up homes in a new country. 

The chief route followed by these western settlers was up the Hudson 
River to Albany; thence by the Mohawk and Oswego Rivers to Lake Ontario; 
across this lake and up the Niagara River and Lake Erie to a point opposite Chau¬ 
tauqua Lake ; then overland and down the Allegheny River to Pittsburgh. Over 
part of this route goods had to be carried in wagons and on the backs of horses, and 
the -cost was $120 per ton from Albany to Buffalo. 

In 1793 an attempt to build a canal between Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware 
River was made and given up. It was twenty-five years later that the people of 
New York, led by Governor Dewitt Clinton, began the Erie Canal, which was to 
connect the Great Lakes with the Atlantic by way of the Hudson River. In these ' 
days of steam-drills and dynamite it would be an easy task to dig a ditch four feet ' 
deep and forty feet wide ; but with the picks and shovels of those days it was eight 
years before the waters of Lake Erie were brought to New York harbor. The* canal -7 
reduced the cost of carrying a ton of goods from Albany to Buffalo to $14. For over ^ 
fifty years it was the route by which the agricultural products of the West were - 
brought to the seaboard for export to foreign countries. This developed the V 
West by making a market for its products. It also built up the foreign commerce 
of the City of New York and made it the metropolis of America. 



The success of the Erie 
Canal led to the building of 
many others, and before the 
end of the century the rivers 
and lakes of the country were 
connected by forty-three 
canals having a total length 
of 2,500 miles and costing 
$200,000,000. 

The Welland Canal con¬ 
nects Lakes Erie and Ontario 
and the Sault Ste. Marie, 
Lakes Superior and Huron. 
Why were these canals built ? 
The Illinois and Michigan 
Ship and Drainage Canal con¬ 
nects Lake Michigan with the 
Mississippi River by way of the 
Chicago and Illinois Rivers. 
The Chicago River was deep¬ 
ened and made to flow into 
the Illinois instead of Lake 
Michigan, and to carry off the 
sewage of Chicago, which was 
polluting the water of the 
lake. This canal connects the two greatest waterways of the country. Other leading 
canals are the Miami and Erie, from Cincinnati to Toledo; the Hudson and Cham¬ 
plain, from Troy to Whitehall ; the Delaware and Raritan, across New Jersey; the 
Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company’s Canal from Coalsport to Easton; the Chesa¬ 
peake and Ohio, from Cumberland to Washington; and the Delaware and Chesapeake, 
across Delaware and Maryland. 


A FLOATING GRAIN ELEVATOR. 

Transferring grain from a canal boat to an ocean steamer 
in the City of New York. 
















THE UNITED STATES: RIVER TRAFFIC AND STANDARD TIME. 


85 


Steamboat and River Traffic.—Ten years after the invention of the steam¬ 
boat in 1807, it had come into use on all the rivers of our country that were then 
routes of travel. The people of the West at once began to send their pork, flour, 
and lumber to New Orleans and to bring back hardware, tools, dry goods, sugar 
and coffee. As this was a cheaper-route than the old routes from the eastern states 
it threatened the trade of New York and led to the building of the Erie Canal. 



A MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT LANDING AT VICKSBURG. 

The long gang-planks in the bow can be swung from side to side and raised or lowered for con¬ 
venience in handling freight. Notice the coal barges that have come down the Ohio River. 


You will notice that the mouth of nearly every large river is a harbor, and that an 
important city is built there. Also, that the head of navigation on a river is the seat 
of a manufacturing town. Between the port and manufacturing town there is usu¬ 
ally much travel and trade, giving profitable employment to steamboats and other 
river craft. Smaller towns also are found along navigable rivers, which are con¬ 
nected with the larger cities by steamboats and barges carrying freight and passengers. 
Farmers bring their grain, fruit, and other produce to the nearest shipping point on 
the river and send it by barge or steamer to the large cities. On the return trip these 
vessels carry goods which merchants in the smaller towns have bought in the large 
cities—farm tools and machinery and manufactured goods of every sort. 

Trolley Lines.—Many goods as well as passengers are now carried on the 
numerous electric, or trolley, lines which go out in all directions from our large cities. 
These roads have greatly’ aided the growth of small suburban towns, to which they 
now carry the mails, e.vpress packages, and the less bulky articles of freight. Many 
people employed in the cities are enabled by the electric roads to have homes 
in the country, where there is plenty of room, light, and air. Electric engines are 
also beginning to take the place of the steam locomotive on railroads which 
traverse crowded districts and tunnels, where steam and smoke interfere with the 
comfort and safety of the people. 



A TROLLEY FREIGHT TRAIN. 

This train runs between two cities in Iowa, Notice that the electric engine is alike on both 
ends and runs in either direction by merely reversing the motors. 


Coasting and Lake Steamers.—The Atlantic Ocean was the chief means of 
communication among the States before railroads were built. Commerce especially 
was carried on by means of sailing vessels, as this was the only way of transporting 
heavy goods, as cotton, lumber, and naval stores. Our coasting trade is still the most 
Important part of our ocean commerce. It is entirely conducted by American vessels. 


The steamers engaged in this trade extend their voyages to Mexico, the West Indies, 
and South America. The lake trade ranks in importance with the coasting trade. 

Steamship Lines.—In addition to our coasting steamship service there are many 
lines of ocean steamers that run between home and foreign ports. 

About sixty years ago a vessel called the Great Republic used to sail between 
Liverpool and New York. This one ship could carry all the freight destined for 
Liverpool that accumulated in New York during a whole month. At present more 
than twenty steamers, each capable of carrying several times as much as the Great 
Republic, leave New York for the ports of Europe every week. 



AN OCEAN GREYHOUND. 


STANDARD TIME. 

To obviate the inconvenience arising from differences in local time, what is 
known as “ Standard Time has been adopted in the United States. The country 
has been divided into four great time-belts, each about 15° wide. The local time of 
the central meridian of each belt is made the Standard Time for the entire belt. 

Time Belts.—The meridians determined upon are the 75th, goth, 105th and 
r20th west from Greenwich ; and the time-belts are known as the Eastern, Central, 
Iilountain and Pacific. As the meridians by which the time of the belts is determined 
are just 15° apart, it is clear that the difference of time in the different belts will be 
marked by exact hours for the simple reason that the sun apparently passes over 15“ 
of longitude every hour. 

The map on the following page shows by different colors the different time-belts. 
Within each of these all places will have the same standard time. Thus, when it is 
solar noon on the goth meridian, it will be 12 o’clock by Standard Time in all places 
throughout the Central belt. From the map we see that Eastern time, being 
determined by the 75th meridian, is just 5 hours slower than that of Greenwich, 
Central time 6 hours slower, and so on. Here and there deviations from the system 
are found expedient for the convenience of railways, and these are indicated on the 
map by the lines of color which project into the neighboring belt. 

THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE. 

Just as nations have arranged that certain belts of longitude shall have the same 
time, so it has been arranged that the whole world shall, as far as possible, have 
the same date and name for the day. Since the sunrise travels about the globe from 
east to west, the day really begins at a different time for all places east or west of 
each other. It has been agreed that each new day shall begin at midnight on the 
i8oth meridian. This gives the whole world the same name for the day except 
places crossed by this “ International Date Line,” as it is called. Let us suppose 
that July 4 is just beginning at midnight on the Date Line. As the midnight moves 
westward around the earth each place will begin the new day. By the time the mid¬ 
night reaches London and the day begins, it will be noon at the Date Line. When 
New Orleans begins the day it will be 6 p.m. at the Date Line. When the day 
begins at San Francisco it will be about 8 P.M. at the Line. And just as July 4 is 
closing east of the Date Line, July 5 is beginning west of it. Thus the whole world 
except those places crossed by the line have the same name and date, or number, 
for the day. The trade and voyage chart, near the end of the book, shows the line 
passing through the middle of the Pacific. Its direction is such that certain islands 
lying in its path shall have the same day as the nearest continent. 

A navigator sailing east around the earth arriving at the line ®n Monday, would 
change his date to Sunday on crossing, and would thus have two Mondays the same 
week. But if sailing west and reaching the line on Sunday, he would change it 
to Monday on crossing, and would have no Sunday at all. 
























I 


I 



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SUndan'VeiSMARCI 




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KEY TO RAILROADS. 


Corptu Chri 

Q 


1 . Pennsylvania 

2, New York Central 

S. Delaware. Lackawanna & Western 

4 . Lonsr Island 

5. Boston & Maine 

6. New York. New Haven & Hartford 

7. Chesapeake & Ohio 
B. Georsria Central 

9. Seaboard Air Line 

10. Atlantic Coast Line 

11. Southern Railway 

12. Norfolk & Western 

13. Queen & Crescent 

14. Louisville & Nashville 

15. Great Northern 

16. Northern Pacific 
’7. Southern Pacific 

18, Union Pacific 

19, Oregron Railroad & Navi&fatlon Co. 

20, Oregron Short Line 

21, Mexican Short Line 

22, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Pe 

23, Kansas City. Mexico & Orient 

24, Chicagfo, Burling'ton & Quincy 
Texas & Pacific 


26 . Denver & Rio Grande 

27 . Chicagro & Northwestern 

28 . Illinois Central 

29 . Mobile & Ohio 

30 . Missouri. Kansas & Texas 

31 . Lake Shore & Michigran Southern 

32 . Cleveland. Cincinnati, Chicagro & St. Louis 

33 . Chicagro. Rock Island & Pacific 

34 . Canadian Pacific 

35 . Florida East Coast 

36 . Maine Central 

37 . Intercolonial 

38 . Minneapolis. St. Paul <& Sault Ste. Marfa 

39 . Michigran Central 

40 . Baltimore & Ohio 

41 . Frisco System 

42 . Grand Trunk 

43 . Rutland 

44 . Erie 

45 . Wabash 

46 . Delaware & Hudson 

47 . International & Great Nortnem 

48 . Colorado Southern 

49 . St. Louis Iron Mountain & Southern 

50 . Chicago^, Milwaukee St St.Paul 














































































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PRINCIPAL ROUTES 

OF 

TRANSPORTATION 

AND 

TRAVEL 

IN THE 

UNITED STATES 
AND CANADA 

SCALE OF MILES 


500 


2U0 


800 


Longitude East from 5" Washington 


> o"’. 


DRY TORTUGAS IS. 


West 


from 


Washington 





























































































88 


THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 


XLIV. DOMINION OF CANADA. 


Province.s, Etc. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population. 

Dominion of Canada. 

3,729,665 

8,788,483 

Ontario. 

407,262 

2,933,662 

Quebec. 

706,834 

2,.361,199 

New Brunswick. 

27,986 

387,876 

Nova Scotia. 

21,428 

523,837 

Prince Edward Island. 

2,184 

88,615 

Manitoba. 

251,832 

610,188 

British Columbia. 

355,855 

.524,582 

Saskatchewan. 

251,700 

757,510 

Alberta. 

255,285 

588,454 

Yukon Territory . 

207,076 

4,157 

North West Territoric.s. 

1,242,224 

7,988 

Newfoundland. 

42,734 

2.59,358 

Labrador. 

120,000 

3,621 


1. All of North America north of the United States, 


the lower House are 
elected by the people; 
those of the upper are 
appointed by the Gov¬ 
ernor-General. 

5. Resources. — The 

cliief resources of Canada 
are her fisheries, her for¬ 
ests, her productive lands 
in the basin of the St. 
Lawrence and in the cen¬ 
tral plain, and her vast 

On the Great Central Plain, Manitoba, showing an orchard in the • civol fyoocnrac 

foreground, a wheat field, and an avenue of trees. 11111161 HI LI 6clSlir6S. 



except Alaska and Greenland, is a part of the British Empire. 
Its area is about equal to that of the United States. 

3. Surface.—The greater part of Canada lies in the northern 
slope of the Great Central Plain of the continent. West of tliis 


The Central Plain or Fertile Belt embraces the millions of acres 
between Lakes Winnipeg and Athabasca and the Rocky Mountains 
Upon the fertile belt the snow is light, and cattle find pasturage all 
winter. It is a good grazing country, and is also becoming one of 
the great wheat regions of the world. 




is the Rocky TMountain Plateau, and east are 


tlie basins of the 
Great Lakes and 
tlie St. Lawrence 
and of Hudson 
Bay. The water¬ 
shed which di- 
s these 
ns is the 


Scenes on the Gatineau River, Quebec, showing the hard rocks of 
the Laurentian Highland. 

Height of Land, also called the Lau¬ 
rentian Highland. This is a worn-down 
mountain range, the oldest on the conti¬ 
nent. This region contains many glacial 
lakes and short, rapid rivers. It abounds 
in fish and game and is a favorite sum¬ 
mer resort and liunting ground. 

3. The Dominion of Canada comprises the Provinces of On¬ 
tario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, Briti.sb 
Columbia, Prince Edward Is¬ 
land, Saskatchewan, and Al¬ 
berta, the Territory of Yukon, 
and the Northwest Territories. 

4. Grovernment.—The 
Dominion is governed by a Par¬ 
liament and Governor-General, 
somewhat as the United States 
is governed by a Congress and 
President. 

The Governor of Canada is ap¬ 
pointed by the British sover 
eign. Each province has as 
its local government a Lieu 
tenant-Governor and a Legis¬ 
lature. The Canadian Par- Lumber piled to reason rxear OUatoa. Lum- 
. r > bering is the chief industry along the Ottawa 

liiinidlt; consists ot two River, which is lined on both sides with forests. 

1 1 rnu.^ .-X' Phe largest mills are near Ottawa, which is fa^ 

branches. The members ot mous as a lumber market. 


0. The Industries of the people are mainly agriculture, lum¬ 
bering, shipbuilding, fishing, mining, and commerce. 

Tlie commerce of the country is extensive, and is almost en¬ 
tirely carried on with England and the United States. 

The exports of cattle, grain, cheese, and other food products are sent 
mostly to England. Lumber, metals, fish, and coal are sold to the 
United States, which furnishes about two-thirds of the imports, 
consisting of iron and steel goods, machinery, cotton, farm tools, and 
jietroleuiii. Canada produces more cheese 
for exiiort than any other country. It also 
ranks first in the value of its fisheries. 
Trade Routes.—The Great Lakes, with the 
Sault Sainte Marie and Welland canals, and 
the St. Lawrence, constitute the most impor¬ 
tant water route. The Canadian Paicfic Rail¬ 
way is an important land route, which connects 
Halifax with Vancouver. At these ports 
steamship connections are made with Emn- 
pean or Asiatic ports. The Grand Trunk 
system connects the cities along the Lakes 
and on the St. Lawrence with the Atlantic 
seaboard, and extends to Prince Rupert on 
the Pacific. The Canadian Northern Railway 
extends from Quebec to Vancouver. The Red River of the North and 
the Saskatchewan traverse the “fertile belt,” and, with Lake Winnipeg, 
Nelson River, and Hudson Bay, furnish, during the summer, continu¬ 
ous water routes to the ocean. 

MAP STUDIES.—What provinces of Canada border on the Atlantic ? What 
great body of water in the interior ? What great river flows into the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence ? What mountain ranges in the west ? What ridge in the southeast ? 

Ontario.—Natural boundaries on the soutli ? Bay on the north ? Lake on the 
west ? River on the east ? Wliat city on the Ottawa ? Where is Toronto ? 
Kingston ? Hamilton ? What is the capital ? 

Quebec_What river valley is a part of Quebec ? What gulf on the east ? 

Where is the Saguenay River ? What and where is the capital ? What city at 
the mouth of the Ottawa ? 

Ncav Brunswick.—What peninsula to the southeast? What river in the 
west ? Bay on the south ? Gulf on the east ? What is the capital ? 

Nova Scotia.—What is the form of Nova Scotia ? AVhat island to the north¬ 
east ? To the north ? Where is Cape Sable ? What is the capital ? 

Prince Edward Island—In what gulf is this province ? Name the capital. 

3Ianitoba.—What rivers and lakes in Manitoba ? What is the capital ? 

British Columbia.—On what ocean does British Columbia border ? What 
mountains form part of the eastern border ? Name the capital. On what large 
island is it located ? Where is I'^ancouver ? Prince Kupert ? 

Saskatchewan.—What lakes in the north ? Name and locate the capital. 

Alberta.—The largest rivers ? Three mountains ? Name and locate the capital. 

Newfoundland.—What strait separates Newfoundland from Labrador ? Where 
is Cape Race ? Where is Trinity Bay ? What is the capital ? 


Hunters working their canoes up the rapids beiween two glacial lakes in 
Quebec. Notice the whUe birch trees on the bank. 












































OST.PETERSBURG 


OLONDON 


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90 


THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 




7. Ontario. —Ontario is bordered by four of the Great 
Lakes, and in the south has a climate like that of Michigan. 

Coal, iron, petroleum, copper, silver, nickel, cobalt, and gold 
are among its mineral resources. Wheat and lumber are 
the principal productions. 

The forests abound with the sug'ai’-maple, and the making of 
sugar from it is an 
important branch of 
industry. 

Ontario is the most 
populous, productive, 
and prosperous of the 
provinces. 

It was settled chiefly 
by Scotch, Englisli, 
and Americans, and 
English is the lan¬ 
guage generally 
spoken by the in¬ 
habitants Logging scenes near Ottawa. 

Cities. —Toronto, the capital and chief city of the province, is 
the largest lake port in Canada. It has extensive manufactures 
of iron and machinery and a large wholesale trade. 

Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, con 
tains the Parliament House, which is a 
magnificent building. It is the first city of 
Canada in the manufacture of lumber. 

8. Quebec.— The Province of Quebec 
has a colder chmate than Ontario. The 
westerly winds do not reach it until they 
have lost the warmth received by them in 
crossing the Lakes. 

The inhabitants are mainly descendants of 
the early French settlers. A majority of 
them profess the Roman Catholic religion, 
and use the French language. The records 
of the Dominion are kept in both English and French. 

The southern part of Quebec is fine farming region, producing tobacco, 
hemp, flax, potatoes, and hay. The western part has vast forests 
of pine, spruce, and hardwoods. Timber is floated down the rivers 
to Ottawa, Three Rivers, and Tadousac, where it is manufactured. 
Cheese, flour, maple sugar, and useful articles for home consumption 
are the chief manufactures. The chief mineral product is asbestos. 

Cities. —Quebec, the capital of the Province of Quebec, is 
beautifully situated on and below a high bluff along the St. Lawrence. 


In 1759 a celebrated bat¬ 
tle, which gave Canada 
to England, was fought 
between the French 
and English before the 
walls of Quebec. Gen¬ 
eral Wolfe and the 
Marqui.s of Mont¬ 
calm, the two opposing 
generals, both fell, each 
bravely leading his 
forces. During the Rev¬ 
olution, Montgomery, 
an American general, 
was killed in an attempt 
to capture the citadel of Quebec. 

Tlie scenery around Quebec is enchanting. In the 
vicinity are the picturesque falls and the natural steps of 
Montmorenci. 

Montreal is the largest city and }nanufacturing 
center in Canada. It has an extensive commerce, 
and exports a large amount of lumber, flour, wheat, 
cattle, and dairy products. 

9. New .Brunswick abounds in lime, red granite, and iron, 
and its forests yield large supplies of ship-timber. The people 
ai’e chiefly employed in the lumber busi¬ 
ness and the sea fisheries. 

Cities.—Fredericton is the capital. St. 
John is the largest town and chief port. 
Both cities are engaged in the manufacture of 
lumber. 

10. Nova Scotia. —Nova Scotia is a 
peninsula. The island of Cape Breton 
belongs to it. The climate of Nova Scotia 
is healthful, and greatly tempered by the 
Gulf Stream. 

The shores of Nova Scotia and New Brmiswick 
are washed by the tides of the Bay of Fundy. 
These tides attain the enormous height of fifty, and sometimes even 
sixty, feet above low-water mark. They are the liighest in the world. 

Coal is mined extensively. Iron, gold, and gypsum are also 
mined. The forest wealth is great, and shipbuilding is one of 


A steamer passing through the famous Lachine rapids on the St. 
Lawrence river. The river descends forty-five feet in three miles at 
this point. 


The principal buildings and residences are in the upper city, wliile the 
lower part is the seat of commerce. The lumber export is large and 
many ships are built there. 








View ol Quebec from the south shore of the St. Lawrence. Notice the old citadel. 


Dominion Square, Montreal. Aboue. it is Mount Royal, from which the city takes its name, 

the industries. The fisheries rank next to those of Newfound¬ 
land. The inland regions are devoted to agriculture. 

Halifax, the capital, is a flourishing town. It has a large trade, 
chiefly in fish, with the United States and the West Indies. Its 
j manufactures are important. 

































THE DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 


91 





The harbor of Halifax is unsurpassed by any in the world. It is the 
principal naval station of Great Britain on this side of the Atlantic. 

11. Prince Edward Island lies in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
It is the smallest, but the most thickly settled, of the provinces. 


ley oj the tied tiiver of the ISIortli.—Thresher and separatcr 
at work in the wheat fields near Winnipeg. 

It has a milder climate than the neighboring mainland. The 
chief industries are agriculture, fishing, and shipbuilding. 

Charlottetown is the capital. 

12. Manitoba lies in the fertile belt, and is well adapted to 
the cultivation of wheat and other grains. The lakes and 
rivers abound in fish, and stock- 
raising and dairying are impor¬ 
tant industries. 

The province was settled with won¬ 
derful rapidity. It is connected 
by railroads with the great 
commercial centers of Canada 
and the United States. 

Winnipeg, the capital, has a 
large trade in wheat. It is the 
great receiving depot of the 
Hudson Bay Company’s furs, 
and of the wheat of the Cana¬ 
dian Northwest. Its exports ai-e wheat and flour 


of their rainfall to Montana 
and North Dakota, but are 
somewhat colder. 

Wheat and cattle raising are 
the most important indus¬ 
tries. Calgary and Ed¬ 
monton are centers of the 
cattle industries. Regina 
is the largest city in Sas¬ 
katchewan. 

The Teri'itory of Yukon con¬ 
tains the Klondike region, 
one of the richest gold fields 
of the woi'ld. Dawson is 
the capital. 

The vast unorganized region 
north of the provinces con¬ 
sists of both forests and tree¬ 
less wastes. The forests are 
the home of many fur-bearing animals. 


The Klondike region.—The Yukon river and 
Dawson. 


Review Topics.—What is the surface of Canada ? What does 
the Dominion comprise? How is it governed? The Parliament. Resources. 
Fertile belt. Principal industries. Commerce. Trade routes. Climate 

of Ontario. Minerals. Productions. 
Rank. Inhabitants. What is said 
of Toronto? Ottawa? Climate of 
Quebec. Inhabitants. What of Quebec? 
Montreal? Products? New Brunswick? 
Occupations. The capital. What is Nova 
Scotia in form? The tides of Pundy ? 
Climate? Resources? Halifax? What 
of Prince Edward Island? Capital? 
Manitoba? The capital? What does 
British Columbia include ? Its resources. 
Climate. Capital. Saskatchewan ‘and 
Alberta. Industries. Yukon. 


XEY. NEWrOITXDEANTD AND DANISH AIVIERICA. 


13. British Columbia includes Vancouver Island. The 


1. Newfoundland is free from the extremes of heat and cold 


province contains extensive forests. Minerals, timber, and fish 
are its chief sources of wealth. British Columbia abounds in 
coal, besides rich deposits of gold, silver, copper, and lead. 

The prevailing winds come from the sea, and the climate is mild. 

The Canadian Pacific Rjiilway, between Quebec and Vancouver, a 
distance of 3,050 miles, is a most important commercial route. 

Cities.—Victoria, the capital, Esqniinalt, a strongly fortified naval 
station, and Nanaimo, the great coal port of the Pacific coast, are 
on Vancouver Island. Vancouver, the largest city, is a center of 
the lumber trade, and has sugar refineries and iron works. 


14. Saskatchewan and Alberta are similar in the amount 



On the “ Great Plains ” in Alberta.—A cattle ranch near Calgary. 


experienced in Canada. It is rich in grazing lands, forests, and iron 
and copper mines, but above all in its cod and seal fisheries. 

St. John’s is the capital. In this city entire acres of ground 
are covered with “ flakes ” or frames that are shingled over with 
codfish, split in two, and spread out to dry; and in the harbor 
ships from all parts of the world may be seen taking in cargoes 
of fish. 

The Grand Banks lie to the eastward of this island. They are ele¬ 
vated plateaus rising from the bottom of the ocean. In area they 
are about twice as large as the State of New York. The depth of the 
water upon them varies from one hundred to six hundi*ed feet. 

These banks are one of the treasuries of the ocean. They are the largest 
and most valuable fishing-grounds in the world. In the spring and 
summer of every year immense shoals of cod, mackerel, and other 
fish resort to them, and are taken by the fishermen in great numbers. 

The Atlantic Telegraph Cables, between Valentia in Ireland, and 
Heart’s Content, in Newfoundland, lie partly upon these Banks. 

Off the shores of Newfoundland the cold current which comes down 
through Davis Strait meets the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. It 
chills the vapor that rises from these waters, and thus produces the 
dense fogs which prevail in this region, and make navigation dan¬ 
gerous. 

2. Labrador is a cold and inhospitable country. 

Although in the latitude of some of the fairest parts of Great Britain, it 

















92 


DANISH AMERICA AND ARCTIC REGIONS. 


has a climate too severe to ripen even the hardiest grams; potatoes 
and a few other vegetables sometimes do well. 

The coast is resorted to in the early spring and summer by fishermen, 
who catch large numbers of seal and codfish. 

The population of northern Labrador consists mainly of Eskimos. 

3. Danish America comprises Greenland and Iceland. (See 

map, p. 29.) Ice¬ 
land has its own 
constitution and 
legislature. 

Greenland.— 
Of Greenland 
little is known 
except the west¬ 
ern and southern 
coasts^ but 
Peary’s explora- 
tion.s have proved this land to be the largest island in the world. 
The .interior is one immense glacier and snow falls throughout the 
year except during a few weeks in summer. 

The trees are not more than six feet high. A few grasses grow, 
and buttercups and dandelions are found. Some vegetables are 
occasionally raised, but the hardiest cereals have failed to grow^ 

The population consists of about 12,000 Eskimos and 200 to 
300 Danes and other Europeans. 

The skins of seals, reindeer, and other animals, with eiderdown, 
whale oil, whalebone, and fish, 
are exported. 

Upernavik, in latitude 73°, is the 
northernmost Danish settlement. 

Iceland is remarkable for its 
volcanoes and geysers. 

Mount Heela is the most noted 
volcano. The Great Geyser 
sends up a stream of water 100 
feet high. 

The vegetation of Iceland is 
not so dwarfed and scanty as 
that of Greenland, but there 
are no trees. 

The warm waters of the Gulf Stream temper the climate. Grain 
will not ripen, but vegetables are raised, and enough grass grows 
to sustain cattle and sheep. Wool, oil, and feathers are exported. 
Sea-fowl, including the eider-duck, abound. 

The population is about 85,000. The people are fond of literature, 
and have made valuable contributions to the history of America. 
Iceland is an independent State, united to Denmark by having the 
same king. Reykjavik (rik'yah-vik), the chief town, is a small 
hamlet, but it is the seat of a college. 

4. The Arctic Regions of North America have been the 
scene of many explorations during the last four centuries. Among 
the explorers may be mentioned Hudson, Parry, Ross, Franklin, 
McClure, Hall, Nares, Nordenskibld, Greely, Peary, and Amund¬ 
sen. 

It was formerly supposed that vessels could sail through Baffin Bay, 
pass westward into Bering Strait, enter the Pacific, and then cross 
to China and the East Indies. This course was called the North- 




Upernavik, from a photograph taken at midnight during the 
Arctic summer. 


west Passage. In 1854 Capt. McClure and his men crossed 
from Bering Strait to Baffin Baj', but long before they reached the 
latter they were forced to abandon their vessel. The journey oc¬ 
cupied more than three winters. In 1905 Capt. Amundsen made the 
passage in a ship from Baffin Bay to Mackenzie Bay. The Northwest 
Passage is useless for purposes of commerce. 


The climate of the Arctic regions is intensely cold. It is fre¬ 
quently 50° below zero. Glaciers fill the valleys of Greenland, 
and slide down into the water. Large masses, sometimes miles 
in length and hundreds of feet high, break off and float away. 
They are called icebergs. They are carried by currents into 
the Atlantic Ocean, tvhere vessels often meet and sometimes run 
against them. 


During the six months of the Arctic uigbt the aurora often brightens 
the sunless sky with its brilliant streamers of red, green, and yellow 
light. 

On the Arctic shores scarcely anything grows but mosses and lichens. 



A hut and a kayak, or native canoe. 


The native inhabitants of 
these regions are called Eskimos. 
They are stunted in body and 
ignorant in mind. Their lives 
are spent in hunting, eating, 
and keeping themselves warm. 
They kill great numbers of seals 
and walruses. The flesh of 
these animals serves for food, 
their skins for clothing, and 
their fat for fuel. The Eskimos 
make many things of bone 


which we make of wood, iron or other metals. 



Few land animals can exist in these desolate I’egions. The most 
important are the Eskimo dog and the polar bear. The dog is used 
by the Eskimos to draw their sledges over the snow and ice. The 
seals and walruses live partly on shore and partly in the water. 
In the Arctic seas one species of whale makes his home. 

That Greenland is an island was first deteimined by Lieut. Peary. The 
pictures on this page were made from photographs taken by a mem¬ 
ber of his ex¬ 
ploring party. 

They were 
taken about 
midnight in the 
latter part of 
June. Later 
on, Peary at¬ 
tempted sev¬ 
eral times to 
reach the North 
Pole. Many 
heroic explorers 
had lost their stone huts or igloos. 

lives in similar attempts. After a desperate struggle with Arctic 
dangers and difficulties he succeeded in reaching the pole, April 21, 
1908. For this great achievement honors were bestowed on him by 
every civilized country on the globe, and Congress raised him to the 
rank of rear-admiral. 


Review Topics.—What is said of Newfoundland ? St. John’s ? The Grand 
Banks. Area. Value. Fish. Fogs. Labrador. Products. Fisheries. Popu¬ 
lation. Danish America. Greenland. Vegetation. Population. Exports. 
Towns. Iceland. Its vegetation. Animals. Fish. Population. Chief town. 
Arctic regions. Northwest Passage. Climate. Icebergs. Aurora. Vegetation. 
Inhabitants. Animals. 














MEXICO. 


93 





XLVI. MEXICO. 

1. Mexico lies south of the United States, and between the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. 

2. Surface. —The greater part of the country is an immense 


The harbor of Vera Cruz, the seaport of the City of Mexico, and the castle of San Juan de Ulloa. 

The low coast may be seen on the right. 

table-land supported by two ranges of lofty mountains, with a 
belt of lowland on both coasts. 

The lowland varies in breadth from a few miles to one hundred or 
more. 

The table-laud rises precipitously from the lowland, and is from .’5.000 
to 8,000 feet above the sea. Upon it are iiioiin- 
tains of great elevation. Many of their peaks are 
capped with perpetual snow. Some of them are 
l olcanoes, as Ori¬ 
zaba and Popo¬ 
catepetl {smoking 
mountain). 

3. Climate. —Mex¬ 
ico, like all tropical 
countries, has a dry 
and a rainy season. 

The latter begins in 
June and lasts till 
November. 

The temperature 

1 . Silver mining in Mexico: 1. A picturesque 

£lCCOrCllTlg‘ to tnG silver mill at Guanajuato. 


View on the Central Plateau, showing the village of Cholula and PopocatepetL 

4. Mines. —The table-land is rich in mines of gold and 
silver, coppeh, lead, and quicksilver. 

It is a part of the great mountain system, consisting of the Rocky 
Mountains and the Andes, which so abounds in minerals that it 
may be called the metal-producing treasury of the Western Hemi 
sphere. Mexico is a leading country in the production of silver. There 
are important oil wells near the east coast. 


S o u o r a, 

ivah'irah) 
{gwah-na- 
richest in 


Cliiliualiua {che 
and Guauajuato 
hwah'to) are the states 
minerals. 20 0,000 
men are employed in 
mining. 

5. Productions. 

—The lowland for 
ests abound in ma¬ 
hogany and other 
cabinet woods. 
Among the vege- 

3. The powdered rock is placed in tanks f^'^le productS are 
containing water and mercury and mixed bannnac 

until the silver is dissolved by the mercury. ^ uctiia)iia.oj Ul* 

anges, lemons, vanilla, cacao, rubber, and the ma¬ 
guey (ma-gway’') or Mexican aloe, which is cul 


varies 

elevation. 


The lowlaud region is hot and unhealthf ui 
it Tierra Caliente (hot land). 

Yellow fever is a common and fatal disease in this region. 

The table-laud is known as Tierra Templada (temperate land). 
Its climate is delightful. 

The houses are built without chimneys, as the winters are not cold 
enough to make fires necessary. The heat in summer is not oppressive. 
Flowers, fruits, and vegetables grow all the year. 


2. Rock containing silver is brougnt from 

the mine and crushed by the wheel as it is -Pz-ii* ifo 

drawn around the circle. tivatea 101 ItS JUlCe. 

The cacao of commerce is the seed of the cacao tree. A well-known 

preparation of cacao is chocolate. The ancient Mexicans called ii 

chocolafl. 

The maguey or pulque plant is peculiar to Mexico. Its leaves served 
the Aztecs in place of paper. The juice when fermented is the na¬ 
tional beverage. A variety of the pulque plant yields a kind of hemp 
called, from the place of its export, Sisal (se-sahl') bemp. 


The Mexicans call 


The city of Puebla. Notice the flat roofs and low houses without chimneys. 


A field of pulque plants on a Mexican farm. 

The pro<luetious of the table-land are cotton, coffee, tobacco, 
and grain. 

The cotton plant produces for several years without renewal. 

In many districts three, and even four, crops of Indian corn are raised 
during the year. It is one of the great food plants of Mexico. The 
inhabitants of the lowland subsist largely upon the banana and 
plantain. 



































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MEXICO. 


95 







A country scene in Mexico. The persons standing in front of the hut 
are farm laborers. They are descendants of old Indian races who 
were enslaved by the Spaniardst but are 7iow free. 


Silver, gold, 
copper. Sisal 
hemp, hides, pe¬ 
troleum, and cof¬ 
fee are the chief 
exports. 

Millions of horses, 
cattle, sheep, and 
goats are raised on 
the ranches of Mex¬ 
ico. Many of them 
are exported to the 
United States. 

The foreign ti’acle of Mexico is largely with this country. Vast 
amounts of Sisal liemp are brought to New Orleans, New York, 
and Mobile to be made into cordage and coarse canvas for wrapping 
cotton bales and making bags. Copper and lead ores are brought 
to the United States to be smelted. Hides, vanilla, and mahogany 
are other leading imports. Mining machinery, tim¬ 
ber, explosives, and raw cotton are our principal 
exports to Mexico. 

6. Race and Religion.—The Spaniards are the 
dominant 
race. Their 
language i s 
the language 
of the coun¬ 
try. They 
are Roman 
Catholics. 

All forms of 
religion are 
tolerated. 


A mill for 


IS then 


and hulling coffee, which 
in sacks for shipment. 


The inner court, or patio, of a home in the City of Mexico. 

7. G o V - 

ernment. —In 1821 Mexico became independent 
of Spain. It is a Federal Republic, comprising 
twenty-seven States, three Territories, and a Federal District. 

8. Cities. — The capital, Mexico, is situated on a table-land 
about 7,500 feet above the sea and is surrounded by lofty mountains. 
It is a ver}'^ ancient city and was the capital of the country when it 
was first discovered by Cortez. It has numerous factories pro¬ 
ducing cotton and other textiles, paper, pottery, and other wares. 

The manufactures of Mexico are chiefly coarse cloths, leather, cigars, 
and other articles Avhich are consumed at home. The finer qualities 
of goods are used only by the wealthier classes and are imported from 
Europe. Leon, Morelia, Puebla, and Qneretaro are important 






Young people in Mexico. Young 
ladies are not permitted to go out 
with gentlemen or to receive calls 
from them un¬ 
less some mar¬ 
ried woman is 
present. But 
from balconies 
they may talk 
with young men. 


Bird’s-eye view of the City of Mexico, showing the plateau; and in the distance the 
mountain rim that surrounds tt. 


penters of manufacture. The last- 
named city has the largest cotton 
industries in Mexico. 

Guanajuato, Pacliuca, Monte¬ 
rey, and Puebla are centers of 
gold and silver mining. Gua- 
(lahyara has manufactures of 
steel and metal goods. 

San Luis Potosi and Durango 
are in rich grazing regions and 
have a large trade in cattle, 
leather, hides, and wool. Merida 
manufactures cordage, hammocks, 
and straw goods, and has the chief 
export trade in Sisal hemp through 

the port of Progreso. Oaxaca is the center of coffee, sugar, and 
chocolate industries. Tt is celebrated for cochineal, and its coffee is 
the finest produced iia the Americas. Aguascalientes is in the 
midst of a fruit-growing district; near it are Avarm sjirings from 
which it takes its name. 

Tampico, Vera Cruz, Carmen, and Progreso are the 
chief seaports on the gulf coast; Guaymas, Mazatlan, 
Manzanillo, and Acapulco, on the Pacific. All of 
these ports ai-e connected with the United States by steam¬ 
ship lines. There are also river connections between the 
ports and interior cities and the United States. 

Ancient Cities. More than two thousand years ago 
there were many flourishing cities in Mexico, chiefly in 
Yucatan. The ruins of these cities are still in existence. 
Uxiiial, in Yucatan, covered seven square miles of 
ground. Their temples and palaces wei’e built of 

dressed stone 
adorned with 
statues and 
carvings. 
These cities 
were built by 
the Mayas, 
who were 
Indians. They 
migrated into 
Mexico from 
the north, 
and were 
probably 
driven by the 
The Mayas 


A street in the City of M exico. 

Aztecs into Yucatan, where their descendants still live, 
of to-day are a moi’e intellectual people than other Mexican Indians. 
Their features are more refined and more like the Caucasians. During 
the last century they took up arms against the government and tried 
to win their 
independence, 
but failed. 

Review T o p - 
ic.s. —How is Mexico 
situated? Lowlands. 

The table-land. Vol¬ 
canoes. How are the 
seasons marked? De¬ 
scribe the climate of 
the lowland. The 
upland. Its climate. 

Mines? Name the 
richest provinces. 

The productions of 
the lowland. The pulque plant. The productions of the table-land. Exports. 
The dominant race. Religion. Form of government. What is said of the City 
of Mexico? Name other cities on the table-land. What are the seaports on the 
Gulf? On the Pacific? What is said of the ancient cities? 


Ai.de?- 


The city of Guadalupe. 

The productions of the table-land. 



































96 


CENTRAL AMERICA.—WEST INDIES. 







XLiVII. CENTRAL AMERICA. 

1. Position.—Central America occupies the extreme southern 
portion of our continent, and lies between the Caribbean Sea and 
thePacificOcean. 

It includes the 
six Republics of 
Guatemala, Sal¬ 
vador, Hondu¬ 
ras, Nicaragua, 

Costa Rica, and 
Panama, a Brit¬ 
ish colony known 

as British Hon¬ 
duras and the ^ mountain road from the coast to the plateau in Central America. 

Canal Zone, which is controlled by the United States. 

The entire population of Central America is about equal to that of 
the State of Illinois. 

2. In surface Central America resembles Mexico. It is situ¬ 
ated in the belt of volcanoes that girdle the Pacific Ocean. 

3. Minerals.—The mountains are richly stored with gold, 

silver, copper, 
mercury, and 
other minerals. 

4. Climate.— 
The climate is 
like that of Mex¬ 
ico ; the soil is 
generous, and it 
is harvest time 
the entire year. 

Yet these states 
are not pros¬ 
perous, be¬ 
cause their inhabitants are wanting in industry and skill, and po¬ 
litical harmony. 

6. Productions.—The principal productions are coffee, bana¬ 
nas, cacao, sugar, indigo, tobacco, and vanilla. 

The forests are most luxuriant tropical growths and abound in ma¬ 
hogany, rosewood, and dyewoods. 

The chief exports are coffee, bananas, gold, rubber, hides, and 
mahogany. 


Port Limon^ showing the railroad, the pier, and a steamer 
loading with bananas. 


Our largest imports from these states are coffee, bananas, and rubber. 
We sell them flour, meats, cloth, iron goods, and machinery. 


6. Race and Religions.—The states of Central America once 
belonged to Spain. The dominant race is Spanish. The lan¬ 
guage is Spanish; the religion is the Roman Catholic. 

7. Cities.—The largest city is Guatemala. The capitals 
of the other states are San Salvador, Tegucigalpa, 3Ianagua, 
San .Tos6, and Panama, the southern terminus of the canal. 

Colon, in Panama, is the northern terminus of the canal; Port Limou, in 
Costa Rica, isconuected by railroad with San Jose, and ships bananas. 

Review Topics.—What part of the continent does Central America occupy ? 
Name the states. Describe the surface. The mineral resources. Climate. Are 
these states prosperous? Productions. Exports. Race ’.nd religion. Capitals. 

XEVIII. WEST INDIES. 

1. Position and Surface.—These islands are like stepping- 
stones across the ocean from Florida to the Orinoco; they are 
in sight from one to another, almost all the way. 

Tliej" separate the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic. 
They keep out the tidal wave, and make both sea and gulf nearly 
tideless. 

All of these islands are mountainous except the Bahamas, 
which are low, coral islands. 

2. Area.—The area of the whole group taken together is about 

twice that of the State 
of New York. 

3. Divisions.—These 
islands form three divi¬ 
sions: the Bahamas, 
Greater Antilles, and 
Lesser Antilles. 

The Greater Antilles are 
Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and 
Porto Rico. The Lesser 
Antilles are the group ly¬ 
ing in a semicircle between 
Porto Rico and the mouth 
of the Oi’inoco. 

4. Government.—Of 

Basse-Terre, on the island of St. Kitts. these islauds, OUly Cuba 

and Haiti are independent. Cuba is protected by the United 
States. 

Porto Rico, St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John belong to the United 
States (see p. 81); Martinique, St. Bartholomew, and Guadeloupe, to 
France; Curagao {ku-ra-so') and St. Eustatius, to the Dutch; the 
Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, and most of the Lesser Antilles, to 
Great Britain. 

5. The population, mostly negroes or the descendants of 
Spanish settlers, is about the same as that of the State of New 
York. The Span¬ 
ish, English, and 
French languages 
are spoken. 

6. Climate.— 

The West Indies, 
with the excep¬ 
tion of the Baha¬ 
mas, are all in 
the Torrid Zone. 

They have a hot Street scene in Pointe Pietre, on the ieland of Guadeloupe. 























AVEST INDIES. 


97 






A sugar m nl in Cuba. 

climate, and during the summer months an abundant rainfall. No 
snow ever falls; but frost occurs sometimesonthehighestraountains. 

7. Productions.—The sugar crop is of more value than all 
others combined. Next in order are tobacco, tropical fruits, and 
coffee. The people depend largely for food upon the yam, the 
plantain, and the banana. Flour and meat are imported from the 
United States. Other imports from this country are coal, lum¬ 
ber, cotton goods, and iron and steel. The sugar crop of C uba and 
the other islands is almost entirely sold to the United States. 
Tobacco, tropical fruits, coffee, and ginger are other exports. 

8. Cuba is called the “ Queen of the Antilles.” 

It is 730 miles long, and averages 60 miles in width. 

It. ranks first in the 
world in the pro¬ 
duction of cane 
sugar. Its tobacco 
and cigars are the 
finest in the world. 

Its forests abound 
invaluable woods. 

Its mines yield 
copper and iron. 

Havana, the capital, is a 

great sugar and ^ tobacco mar¬ 

ket. It is the largest city and chief port of the AVest Indies. 

Mataiizas, Saiitiagro, Cienfaegos, and Cardenas are important 
seaports. At Santiago most of the fighting vs as done during the 
Spanish war in 1898. Here the Spanish fleet was totally destroyed. 
Camaguey is an important inland city. 

9. Haiti consists of the Dominican Republic and the republic 


in the 


Havana naroor. 

of Haiti. Santo Domingo, the capital of the Dominican Republic, is 
the oldest city in the New World settled by Europeans. It was founded 
in 1504. Port an Prince is the capital of the republic of Haiti. 


The island of Haiti is un.surpassed in agricultural and mineral resources, 
which are not yet fully developed. It is inhabited chiefly by negroes 
and mulattoes. The chief exports are sugar, cacao, and coffee. 

10. Jamaica is the third of the AVest Indies in size. King.s- 
ton is its capital. The cultivation and export of bananas is a 
very large and profitable industry. A special line of steamers is 
employed in carrying the fruit to the United States. 

11. St. Thomas derives its importance from its central loca¬ 
tion in the West Indies, and its fine harbor at Charlotte Amalie. 

European and other steamers make this port their rendezvous, where they 
meet the smaller steamers from neighboring ports, and exchange cargoes 
and passengers. It is also valuable to the United States as a naval and 
coaling station. The cliief product of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. 
John is sugar. 

12. Barbados is the headquarters of English troops in the 
AVest Indies. Sugar is the staple product. 

Santa Lucia is a highly fortified naval station of Great Britain. 

13. Trinidad {Trinity) almost joins South America. 

It is celebrated for a lake of pitch or asphalt, from which immense 
quantities ^ ^ ^ annually taken, 

while yet there is no perceptible 

diminution of it. As¬ 
phalt is used to make 
the composition with 
which many side¬ 
walks and streets are 
paved. Trinidad be- 
1 ongs to Great Britain. 

14. The Baha¬ 
ma Islands are 
formed of coral 
rock. Sponges, 

3. Shipping cigars. turtles, pine¬ 

apples, oranges, and Sisal hemp are exported. 

factories. Watliiig Islaud was the first land discovered by 

Columbus in 1492. 

The Turk’.s Islands, which are among the Bahamas, export large 
quantities of salt. This is obtained from sea-water evaporated in 
“.salt pans.” 

Nassau, the capital of the Bahamas, is a great resort for invalids. 

16. The Bermudas, which consist of 360 coral isles, lie to the 
north of the AVest 
Indies. They be¬ 
long to Great 
Britain. About 
20 of them are in¬ 
habited. They are 
famed for their 
lilies, onions, and 
potatoes. Large 
quantities are 
exported. 

At Nassau, the capital of the Bahamas.—Loading a steamship 

The houses are vnth bananas. 

built of blocks of coral sawed into shape. These harden when ex¬ 
posed to the air. 

Review Topics.—Locationof the West Indies. Surface. Area. Divisions. 
Name the Greater Antilles. The Lesser. Political condition of the islands. 
Population. Language. Climate. Productions. Describe Cuba. Havana. Haiti. 
Jamaica. St. Thomas. Barbados. Trinidad. The Bahamas. The Bermudas. 



































SOUTH AMERICA 


XT.IX. PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

1. South America is triangular in shape. It lies partly in 
both the northern and the southern hemispheres; but by far the 
larger portion of it is in the southern. 

2. Surface.—The surface of the continent is naturally divided 
into four regions : I. The Amleau Plateau; II. The Hig-hlaud 
of Brazil; III. The Highland of Guiana; IV. The Great Cen¬ 
tral Plain, which extends the entire length of the continent. 



The Great Central Plain. View on the pampas 
of Argentina, with the Andes mountains in the 
distance. 


On the Andean Plateau. 

MAP STUDIES. — What two 
oceans surround South America? 

What sea on the north? Great ocean 
current on the northeastern coast? 

What great current on the west 
coast ? What is the shape of the con¬ 
tinent? What directions have the 
A-tlantic coasts of Soutli America? 

What is the general direction of the 
Pacific coast? What bay and gulf 
on opposite sides of the Isthmus of 
Panama? What island forms the 
southern extremity of the continent? Wliat group to the east? What is¬ 
lands off the northern coast? What island at the mouth of the Amazon? 
What strait between Tierra del Fuego and the mainland? What is the most 
northern point of the continent? Southern? Eastern? Western? What 
winds blow constantly within the Tropics? Which of these winds blows 
upon the coast between Cape St. Roque and Cape Frio? What part of the 
coast is rainless? What cape on the Brazilian coast near the Tropic of 
Capricorn? What desert on the western coast opposite this slope? 

Surface.—Judging by the colors of the map, is most of South America 
high or low? Where is the most elevated portion? What mountains 
form it ? Point out the Cumbre (koom-bray) Pass. ( The railroad from, 
Buenos Aires to Valparaiso goes through this pass.) 

Where does the lowland chiefly lie? What two highlands in the 
eastern part of the continent? Wliat great plateau in the western? What 
lies between these high regions? What three river basins does the Central 
Plain comprise? What name is given to the grassy plains in the valley 
of the Orinoco? To the forest plains of the Amazon? Where are the 
pampas? 

Rivers and Lakes.—What great rivers drain South America? Among 
what mountains does the Amazon rise? Where is the Huallaga? The 
Ucayali (oo-ka-ya-16) ? The Madeira? Tapajos? Tocantins? In what general 
direction do they all flow? In what direction does the Amazon flow? 
How many mouths has it? In what direction does the Orinoco flow? The 
Paraguay? Where are the three largest branches of the La Plata? By 
what rivers could you pass from the Orinoco to the Amazon ? What lake 
near the northern coast? On the Bolivian Plateau? 

Climate.—In what zone is all of South America north of Cape Frio 
and the Desert of Atacama? Through what river-valley does the equator 
pass? What kind of climate then, is found in most of South America? 
In the most southern portion? 


3. Andean Plateau.—The Andes skirt the shores of the Pa 
cific all the way from Patagonia to Panama. 

They consist of parallel ranges called cordilleras, of which the 
two most important are known as the cordillera of the Coast, 
and the cordillera of the Interior. 

Between these are elevated plateaus, the highest of which is the 
Plateau of Bolivia. 

All the way from the Strait of Magellan to the Isthmus of Panama 
there is, arranged along the top of the Andes like a line of sentinels 
a succession of snow-capped volcanoes, many of them higher than 
the highest peak in North America. Some of them I’each the height 
of about 25,000 feet. 

4. The Highland of Brazil extends from the La Plata north 
ward, nearly to the Amazon. It is traversed by paralled ranges 
of mountains, some of which are from 5,000 to 8,000 feet high, 

5. The Highland of Guiana rises abruptly from the plain 
between the Orinoco and the Amazon. 

6. The Great Central Plain consists of the valleys of the 

Orinoco, the Amazon, and the 
La Plata. 

The elevations which separate the 
headwaters of these streams are so 
low that the three valleys may be 
considered as forming one great 
plain. Hence, with trifling excep 
tions, all the rain that falls on the 
continent finds its way back to the 
sea through the Amazon, the Ls 
Plata, and the Orinoco. 




On the Brazilian Highland. This is an old plateau worn doum like the New England plateau 

The train of pack mules shows how merchandise is carried into more inaccessible parts ot th* 
Brazilian Highland and its products carried to the nearest railroad or to the coast. 

Productions.—What minerals are found among the Andes? Where 
is the diamond region of South America? On what part of the coast is 
nitrate found? Where is guano foimd? (Guano is used as a 
fertilizer .) 

Name some of the vegetable productions of the Valley of the Amazon. 
Where do you find cinchona bark? Wheat? What are some of the 
vegetable products of the Brazilian Highland? Where do you find the 
manioc? Where is India rubber found? What valuable cabinet woods 
are found in the Amazon Valley? 

Animals.—What animals abound on the Pampas? Where is the 
condor found? The armadillo? The sloth? For what shell-fish is 
Guayaquil famed? 

What curious fish in the Orinoco? What dangerous animal in the 
Amazon Valley? What birds and insects are found here? What sea-bird 
in the South Atlantic? What bird belongs to the southern extremity o^ 
the continent? 


98 





















MAICA' 


A OIOS 


,the. Orinoco R. 


IPPER. 


C. CHANGE 


.HArtlWfE 


TsUn*! 






ANC\SC0i 


lARAJO 


£<?l^-tTOR 


_4wia*S 




.Caca-o, 


<?.o/ 

Oyster^ 

CBUANCO^ 


WOQU£ 


u»»«* '**■ 

(3ruaJV0i 


-Rubber)/5fad«ra;^ 


L»QOSTi 


^UICKSIL^ 
(V OOPPtR 
\ \ LtAD 

S ^ 'ROll 


CWncb* 


% Sorata ^ 
Illimani' 


**t»^fainbe 


^MtSeoluml 


^7«^ g 


iCOBN' 


ROP'C-O' 


M^nafacAe 


Ut. Acooea] 


Z.Sevedei^ ■ 

3Keo Wheat' 


'C.SAN ANTONIO 


Oc^^^iotia^ 


C.CORRIENTES 




^BlancaB 


StJtfatias 


YaaUC 

\Vol>) 


Gulf of 
St.George 


MONTES^W 

f Benai 


C.TRE8 PUNTA8 
R.Deseado 


I^otru9ion8 qr ,\ 


elllngton 


A£ba)iiQss 


rPALKLANO ISLES ' / 

^S gsW ild HorseSjCalllej 


'StJ’.o/'K 

Magellan 


aurora 16. 


Staten 


GEORgm 


horrent 


. 

MUMtV ^ ^ 

^ ^ J 7?' *Gusdeloupe I 


Loiig-itude 


■West from 


Green\\ ich 


^Dominica 

I^Martinique 
eSt.Luela 

^Barbados 1. 


War^ -Tobago I. 

• !:«^8£5^Tri'nldad I. 

Su ga v, Hum 


SOUTH AMERICA 

PHYSICAL MAP 

4 

scale of miles 


PlaiiiS 
Low land 
Low Plateau 
High Plateau 


Green 
Bark green 
Stiff 

Bark'buff 


1000 


Long. 3 'W. 0 East 7 from 17 'Washington 27 


10 




io 


no 


30 


io 


50 





































































































































100 


SOUTU AMERICA: PHYSICAL FEATURES. 


I )iffereiit portions of the Great Central Plain are called Pampas, 
Selvas, and Lilauos. 

Pampas.—The vast plains of the La Plata are known as Pam¬ 
pas. They resemble our prairies. 

During the W'et season they are clothed with a ricli growth of tall 
grass, and clumps of thistles ten or fifteen feet high; l)ut the long 
summer droughts destroy the vegetation, and these pampas become 
arid wastes. 


Selvas.—The Selvas are densely wooded plains occupying a 
large part of the valley of the Amazon. 

The vegetation here is of the most remarkable and luxuriant descrip 
tion. The trees are of gigantic growth and endless variety. 

Air-plants and climbing vines of the most fantastic shapes, with 
leaves of extraordinary beauty, and the most brilliant and curious 
flowers, nang from the branches and festoon the forests. 

Among the trees are the India rubber tree, the cow-tree, and palms in 
great variety; among them is the wax-palm, from which valuable 
wax is obtained. 


The Llanos {lyah'ndz), or plains of the Orinoco, extend from 
the shores of the Caribbean Sea to the foot of the mountains. 


They are dotted here and there with clumps of trees. 



In the rainy .season a vast extent of these plains is overflowed, and 
becomes, like the borders of the Lower Nile, a boundless sea. After 
the flood subsides, a most luxuriant growth of grass and flowers 
appears. 

In the dry season the verdant plains become barren wastes. 



A bore coniinq up the mouth of the Amazon. It looks like a heavy surf rolling up on a sandy 
shore, but the breakers are caused by the meeting of the strong current and the tide. 


7. Rivers.—The three great rivers, the Amazon, the La Plata, 
and the Orinoco, with their tributaries, include nearly all the 
large streams of South America, and constitute the grandest sys¬ 
tem of watercourses on the globe. 

The Amazon is one of the longest and largest rivers in the 
world. It rises in Lake Lauricocha, in the Andes, and flows 
across the continent. Its length is upwards of 3,700 miles. 

In some places, even far away from the sea, it is so broad that a 
vessel sailing u])on it may be out of sight of land. 

The Amazon drains a larger area and di.scharges more water into the 
ocean than any other river. Its cnrr<‘nt is perceived 200 miles out 
at sea; while the tide is felt 400 miles up its channel. 

Sometimes the tide, instead of rising slowly, enters the mouth of the 
river as a perpendicular wall of water. This is called a bore. A 
mass of water 12 or 15 feet high rolls up the stream with a roar that 
is heard at the distance of 5 or 6 miles. 

From the Rio Negro to the Ucayali the Amazon is known as the 
Solimoeiis, and above the Ucayali river as the Maraiioii. 

The Orinoco, with its tributaries, flows through the northern 
portion of the Great Plain, and drains the mountain region of 
Guiana. 

This river is connected with the Amazon by the Cas.si<iuiare and 
Ncgr«» rivers, so that an Indian in his canoe may pass from the 
Amazon to the Orinoco. 

The La Plata is the Mississippi of South America. Its course, 
unlike that of the Amazon, is not along parallels of latitude, but, 
like that of the Mississippi, across them. 


COUNTBIES. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population. 

Countries. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population. 

The Guianas.... 

Republics. 

175,500 

460,000 

Republics. 

Peru. 

Bolivia. 

440,000 

440,000 

4,586,000 

2,890,000 


3,300,000 

364,000 

30,645,000 

2,412,000 

Chile. 

293,000 

1,084,000 

3,755,000 

8,699,000 

Venezuela. 

Argentina.... 

P/olonnhifi, . . 

466,000 

118,000 

5,855,000 

2,000,000 

Paraguay. 

100,000 

69,000 

1,050,000 

1,495,000 

Ecuador. 

Uruguay . 


MAP STUDIES.—What countiy occupies most of the eastern por¬ 
tion of South America? The southern? What countries are traversed 
by the Andes? Which border on the Caribbean Sea? 

Brazil. —What two states do not touch Brazil? What great river 
drains a large part of Brazil? How near the Pacific is its source? Through 
how many degrees of longitude does it flow? What two rivers have their 
source near the town of Diamantino? What do you judge from the fact 
that one flows north and the other south? What river enters the Atlantic 
south of Cape St. Augustin? What portion of Brazil is mountainous? 
Where is Rio? Bahia? Pernambuco? Para? Maranhao? 

Guiana.—To what nations do the Guianas belong? What are their 
capitals? 


A'euezucla. —What countries east of Venezuela? South? West? 
Sea on the north? Name its great river. What lake in the northwest? 
Island off the mouths of the Orinoco? Capital? Where is Mara¬ 
caibo? 

Colombia. —What countries border on Colombia? What sea north? 
What cape forms the northern extremity ? What isthmus northwest of 
Colombia? Where is Cartagena ? Medellin? Barranquilla ? What is 
the capital ? 

Ecua<b»r.—What countries border on Ecuador? What circle crosses 
it? Name its volcanoes. Gulf off the coast. Capital. Seaport. 

Peru. —Where is Peru? What cape and point on the coast? Islands 
off the coast? What rivers traverse Peru? Where is Lake Titicaca? 
Cuzco? Lima? 

Bolivia. —What countries touch Bolivia? Name some of the rivers. 
Where is La Paz? Sucre? Mt. Sorata? Mt. Illimani? 

Cbile.— -In what zones is Chile? On which side of the Andes? 
Where is Valparaiso? Santiago? Where is the island of San Juan 
Fei-nandez? 

Argentina. —What river drains the northern part? Name its chief 
tributaries. Where is the Strait of Magellan? Tierra del Fuego? Cape 
Blanco? Buenos Aires? Rosario? Cordoba? Mendoza? 

Paraguay. —What countries touch Paraguay? What is the capital? 
Uruguay. —What countries touch Uruguay? What is the capital? 
















































TIME A.M.when it is Noon on the Meridian of Greenwich 


PO RTO Rt co 


Longitude 


JAMAlCi 


Guadeloupe I 


SOUTH AMERICA 

POLITICAL MAP 


Dominica 


Lat.Qf 0. Vtrdt 


^Marti nique !• 
•St.L!ucIa I. 

f ^Barbados I 


.GHACIAS 

A o>oa 


y TOBAGO I. 

Trinidad t, 


TroPo 


^^^Torinoco 


For every 15 degrees of longitude the 
difference of time is one hour. 


,C.ORANGE 


laventu' 


WTs, ) 


Eameraida 

C-SA« F-BAHCiacW 

X^ataw 


>raganza 


pWdos 


Marcellos 


'fOUATOft. 


*c« 

(BoleiQ) 




k3Ianao< 


Sautareui 


GuayaQxJ 

■jf Guay<i^^ 

c. bianco/ 

pT.PABiNA^ 


kCamociu 




tf,V/"*ndo 
"• "oronha |, 

JT.roqoe 


Uobos 


AUGus- 


CeUaol 




Cuyaba 


''Rdor; 




Islaylaii 

MoUendi 


'^^•avellas 


Iqulqui 


ictoria 


TV 


SjBSS^C. FRIO 
.>9/^^ero^. 


Antofag^ 


'^CIOl 


■■’■ROpic 


Santos 


.riCORN 


f'CORN. 


/Jjg 


,rt« Caldera, 


loriuaopolis 


Huascol 

Serenal 

(CoflU^mboj 


Mt. Aconq 
San Fel; 


;io Grande do Snl 


FEU^O 
|aN>PC. ST. MARIA 
Maldonado 

''“-PfeCo 


SANTIAl 

cng 


CbiV 

Goncepcionj 


IC. SAN ANTONIO 


C. CORRIENTES 


Blanca B. 


Vatdivii 




Ix>nge6t 


Raweoo 


Ch'io® 


G.of 

St.Oeorge 




.C.TRES PUNTA 3 
i^uerto Deseado 


S MONTES^ 

G. of 


Vicinity of the STRAIT OF M AGELLAN 


LoDgeBt ^Day 16 


Msdce-de Pl^Si 


^eliinfltoft 


FALKLAND ISLES 
L (Jo Gr.BrU.) 
I rj^Port Stanley 


Hanorer Tj 


Strait of 
Magellan 
HRA DEL 


Q.AdelaideS^^ 

tStraft 

. Desolation' 


Strait , 
^ageiii 


^^Oellan 
Strait 'T 


Staten 


|^\ Sfaten'K 
Navarin I. 

»Wollaston L 


Hoste 


Hermit I. 


from 17 Washington 27 


Horn 




I'STl 

k IF 



CoropSVvvy 

Trir 
































































































































102 


SOUTH AMERICA: GENERAL DESCRIPTION; BRAZIL. 


From north to south the La Plata, with its tributaries, the Paraguay 
and Piirana, traverses 23 degrees of latitude. It drains the southern 
portion of the Great Plain. 

On the western side of the Andes, all the way fi’om Patagonia 
to Panama, the rivers are small in volume and short in course. 


regions of the globe. Gold and silver, precious stones, copper, 
and other metals abound. 

3. Productions.—All the great agricultural productions ®f the 
world may be successfully cultivated in South America. 



The mountains are too near the coast to allow the drainage to gather 
into large streams. 

Re view Topics. —Shape of South America. Divisions of surface. Andes. 
Plateau. Volcanoes. Highland of Brazil. Of Guiana. Great Central Plain. 
Pampas. Selvas. Llanos. The great rivers. The bore. Rivers on the west of 
the Andes. 

L. CLIMATE, PRODUCTIONS, INHABITANTS. 

1. Climate.—The larger part of South America lies within 
the tropics. 

The Temperature of the lowlands is hot; that of the plateaus 
is variable, depend¬ 
ing upon height 
above the sea- 
level. 


Thus, a traveler 
ascending the 
Amazon would 
find in the valley 
of the Ucayali a 
spring climate 
all the year. 
Passing on into 
the valley of the 
Huallaga {hwal- 


A Chilean ome in Santiago. 


yah'gah), a cooler climate still would await him. 
Along the Upper Amazon, he would find him¬ 
self in a superb wheat, corn, cattle, hemp, and 
tobacco country, with bright skies and pleasant 
days at all seasons. Still higher he would 
enter, at the height of 16,000 feet, the region of 
perpetual .snow. 

South of the Tropic of Capricorn the temper¬ 
ature is moderate. The extreme southern por¬ 
tion of the continent is very cold. 

Moisture. —The northeast and southeast 
tra<le, winds, Avhich come from the sea, are 
laden with moisture when they I’each the land. 


Cotton, sugar, tobacco, cacao, coffee, the banana, i-ice, the manioc— 
from whose root tapioca is prepared—spices, indigo, dyestuffs, and 
ornamental woods abound in this region. 

The great i)laius are very productive of wheat and other grains and 
furnish pasturage for countless herds of cattle and horses. 

4. The Animals are remarkable, and are very unlike those of 
the other continents. Among them are the long-tailed monkeys; 
armadillos; the rhea, a bird somewhat like the African ostrich; 
the electric eel, that shocks even horses to death; the peccary, 
that somewhat resembles a pig and is good to eat; the boa con¬ 
strictor, the llama, and the alpaca. 

5. Inhabitants.—The native inhabitants of 
South America are called Indians. They oc¬ 
cupy a large part of the continent. Many of 
them are still in a savage state. 

A great number of the present population 
are descended from European settlers, or are of 
mixed descent. 

The people of Brazil ai*e chiefly of Portuguese 
descent and speak the Portuguese language. In 
nearly all the other countries of South America 

the inhabitants 


are of Spanish origin 
and speak the Span¬ 
ish language. 


0/1 a stock farm in Chile. The cowboys are assembled for orders. The general 
superintendent is in the center. 


As they ascend 

the eastern slope of the Andes, they get cooler and cooler, and 
as they cool they drop down their moisture in the shape of rain 
or snow. Crossing the snowy heights of the Cordilleras, they 
finally reach the western slopes completely robbed of moisture. 
Consequently, those western slopes are nearly rainless. 

Every drop of water has been wrung from the winds while crossing 
the Andes, and we see it returning eastwardly to the sea in the shape 
of mountain streams and majestic watercourses. 

The eastern slopes of the Andes, therefore, are clothed with 
trees and verdure. The western slopes, for nearly 2,000 miles, 
in Peru, and the northern part of Chile, are parched and barren. 

South of latitude 30°, however, the prevailing winds are from the 
west, and there the conditions are reversed; there the western side is 
the rainy, and the eastern the dry side. 

Had the Andes been on the east coast instead of the west, tropical South 
America would have been a desert. 


is the effect upon the eastern slopes? The western? 
of lat. 30°? South America as a mineral region. Chief products. 
Inhabitants. 


Review Topics. 
—Climate of tropical 
South America 
Changes of climate 
Temperature of south¬ 
ern part of the conti¬ 
nent. What winds 
bring rain to South 
America? How are 
these winds deprived of 
their moisture? What 
What conditions south 
Animals. 


LI. BRAZIL, GU1ANA8, VENEZUELA, 

1. Brazil.—Brazil is the largest and most important country 
of South America. It is larger than the United States without 
Alaska. Until 1889 it Avas an empire. It is now a republic, con¬ 
sisting of a number of states united like our own. 

Physical Features.—The northern portion occupies the 
greater part of the valley of the Amazon, and includes the 
selvas. The central and southern portions are table-land. 

Brazil has 30,000 miles of inland navigation. The Amazon 
drains most of the country. From its length and volume the 
Indians call it the “King of Rivers.” 

2. Productions.—Brazil is rich in mineral wealth, but little 
has been done to make use of it, though gold and diamond mining 
are carried on to a considerable extent. 


2. Minerals.—South America is one of the richest mineral 


Silver, lead, zinc, iron, and manganese are found, but there is little 














BRAZIL. 


103 



coal or petroleum. Monazite sand and manganese are exported. 

Two towns have been named from the diamond mines near them. 
Locate these. 

The leading agricultural product is coffee, three-fourths of 
the world’s supply being produced in Brazil. Cotton, sugar, 
tobacco, cocoa, and manioc are other leading products. 

In the southern parts of the country there are important grazing 
and dairying industries conducted by pros¬ 
perous German and Italian colonies. Flor- 
iauopolis and Bluiueiiau are growing 
towns in this section and export large quan¬ 
tities of dried beef, hides, tallow, and dairy 
products. Still larger quantities, however, 
are imported into other parts of the coun¬ 
try from Ai’gentina and Uruguay. 

The forests 
of Brazil fur¬ 
nish our chief 
supplies of 
India rubber, 
besides large 
quantities of 
timber, dye- 
woods, drugs, 
and Brazil 
nuts. 

Brazil 

abounds in birds and insects of brilliant colors. The shells 
of beetles and feathers of birds are worked into vailous 
ornamental forms by the natives. This kind of orna¬ 
mental work is noted for its elegance. It forms an impor¬ 
tant export and is sold in various parts of the world. 

3. Pursuits.—The principal industry is agriculture; grazing, 
mining, and manufacturing are of less importance. There are 
many sugar factories and some refineries. There are many cot¬ 
ton mills in the cities and a few that manufacture silk and woolen 


Steamers ply between Para, at tlie mouth of the Amazon, and Nauta, 
in Peru, a distance of 2,200 miles, and between Cuyaba and Buenos 
Aires. Brazil has more than 10,000 miles of railroad open for traffic, 
and more than 15,000 miles of telegraph lines. It is connected 
with Portugal and the United States by ocean telegraphs. 

4. Discovery.—Brazil was accidentally discovered by Cabral, 
Portuguese navigator, in the year 1.500. 

He was bound to India, and, much against his will, was drifted to the 

westward by the trade- 
wind, and reached the 
shores of South Amer¬ 
ica nearCape St. Roque. 
Owing to this circum¬ 
stance, Brazil became a 
Portuguese possession, 
and was colonized by 
Portugal. 

5. People and 
Religion.—The in¬ 
habitants are 
of different 
r a c e s — 
whites, In¬ 
dians, who 
for the most 
part are 
wholly un¬ 
civilized, and 
negroes. The 
language is 
Portuguese, 
the religion 

Other religious denominations are tolerated. 

6. Cities.— Rio de Janeiro (Rio) is the capital and largest 
city of the Republic. It has an excellent harbor and is, next to 
Santos, the largest coffee market in the world. 




The coffee industry in Brazil. The ripe scarlet coffee berries are gathered from the trees; they are 

put into a much ine which removes the seed. The seeds are smead out to dry in the sun, after which 
the coating is removed from the seed. Then they are sorted according to size and placed in sacks 
for shipment. The third view shows the ships at Santos being loaded with coffee from the car. 

Roman Catholic. 


goods. 

Most manufactured goods used in the country are imported 



Bird's-eye view of the harbor of Rio de Janerio. showing the entrance and sugar loaf mountain, 
" j • ». • _ _ 11 t _ JtJriiire ihfi. hn.il/l.in.nsi filnnn tfl£ wa,t6r8 €d 06 . 


'whTch is aweii-krww'n landmark. Notice the buddings along the water's edge. 


from Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. Our 
largest imports from Brazil are coffee, rubber, and sugar. Our 
exports to that country consist principally of flour, kerosene, 
machinery, and hardware. 


Rahia, the second city, exports coffee and cocoa. Pernambuco is in 
the center of the sugar district and exports raw sugar, cotton, and 
hides. Para (Belem) is the leading port in the world for the ship¬ 
ment of I’ubber. Sao Paulo is in the heart of the coffee district, and 
is connected by railroad with Santos, its seaport, and the largest 
coffee market in the world. 

Nictheroy, M.aranliao, Porto Alegre, and Rio Grande do Sul 

have factories for the manufacture of woolen goods and carpets. 
Pelotas and Porto Alegre have a large export ti-ade in agricul¬ 
tural and dairy products. Campos is second in the sugar trade. 





The harbor of Pernambuco, showing the natural reef which has been extended by a sea wall 
so as to give the city a harbor. 

















































104 


THE GUIANAS AND VENEZUELA. 



mined extensively, and is gathered from shallow lagoons on the 
shore. 

The leading productions are gold, colfee, sugar, cacao, hides, 
rubber, and asphalt. 

The flora of Venezuela is wonderfully rich and varied. A species of 
mimosa, or sensitive plant, grows here, which spreads out its um¬ 
brella-shaped toi) until it attains the enormous proportions of several 
hundred feet in circumference. Orchids, with flowers of curious 
form and brilliant hue, cling to the branches of the forest ti'ees. 
The “cow-tree” also is found here; the natives tap it and draw from 
it a milk-like beverage. 





View of the harbor of Cayenne. Notice that it it unirrolecled. In the foreground is the 
quay, where men and merchandise are landed. 

7. The Guianas.—These three provinces belong respectively 
to the British, French, and Dutch. They are the only portions 
of South America now dependent upon any European power. 

8. The scenery is wonderfully picturesque. 

Long, flat-topped mountains rise abruptly from 

the plain, wnth precipitous sides like walls of 
masonry. Of these, Mt. Koraiina is the most 
remarkable. It is 18 miles long and 7,500 feet 
high. 

In this region the rainfall is very great. The north¬ 
east trade-wind brings to it copious volumes of 
moisture. 

The rivers, dashing down the mountain sides, form 
beautiful cascades and waterfalls. The Great 
liaieteur waterfall makes a clear leap of 822 feet. 

The coa.st country is low, flat, and swampy. 


9. Liife.—The air is filled with insects; the 
forests teem with wild dogs, tiger-cats, and arma¬ 
dillos; the tree tops are lively with songsters, 
and noisy with howling monkeys. 

Exports.—Coffee, sugar, gold, and the prod¬ 
ucts of the forests are the exports. 

10. Towns.—The capitals are the largest 
towns. Georgetown is the capital of British 

Guiana, and Paramaribo the capital of Dutch ’ ’ 

Guiana. These are the centers of trade. Cayenne (whence we 
get cayenne pepper) is the capital of French Guiana. 

11. Venezuela.—The Republic of Venezuela is about twice 
the size of Texas. 

The early Spanish explorers, observing that the natives had built their 
houses on piles along the shores, called the country Venezuela, a 
word meaning “Little Venice.” 

12. Surface.—The northwest and southeast portions of Ven¬ 
ezuela are mountainous. More than two-thirds of the country, 
however, consist of llanos (grassy plains), upon Avhich millions 

of cattle, sheep. 


The chief exports are coffee, cacao, hides, rubber, and gold. 

Several lines of steamers ply between Venezuela and the ports of 
Europe, and the United States. Nearly half the foreign trade is 
with this country, from which Venezuela buys cotton cloth, food 
products, kerosene, and lumber in exchange for coffee 
and asphalt. 

14. Cities.—Caracas, the capital, is subject to 
earthquakes. It was nearly destroyed by one in 
1812. 

It is 6 miles from its port. La Giiayra, and about 
3,000 feet above the sea. Immediately in the rear 
is the “Silla” {the saddle), a mountain with two peaks 
rising to the height of 8,600 feet. These peaks may 
be seen many miles out at sea, and are landmarks well- 
known to the navigator. 

Valencia, Maracaibo, and Ciudad Bolivar, on 
the Orinoco, are centers of trade. 




The country is 
traversed by the 
Orinoco; its upper 
waters divide into 
two branches, one 
of which flows into 

A farmhouse, or hacienda, on the plateau of Venezuela. Rio Negro. 

13. Productions.—Among the mountains are rich deposits 
of gold and copper, which are extensively worked. Salt is 


and other 
stock feed. 


live 


Venezuela contains several large lakes of asphalt, or 
mineral pitch. This substance is much used in paving 
city streets, and most of this output of asphalt goes to 
the United States. 

Review Topics.—Rank and size of Brazil. Govern¬ 
ment. Surface. Inland navigation. Drainage. Mineral prod- 
What is said of the coffee of Brazil? Other agricul- 
tnral products. Sugar. What do the forests yield? For 
what are cattle chiefly raised? Principal pursuits. Com¬ 
mercial facilities. Discovery. People and religion. Rio. Para. Bahia. Per¬ 
nambuco. To what powers do the Guianas belong? Their scenery. Waterfalls. 
The coast country. What is said of the animal life ? Chief exports. Towns. 
What do we get from French Guiana? What is the size of Venezuela? Why 
so called? What of the surface? Great river. Mineral products. Agricultural. 
Exports. What is said of Caracas? Other cities. 


Loading a schooner with fruit at Ciudad Bolivar on the Orinoco. 

Lll. THE ANDEAN STATES. 

1. The Andean States are Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bo¬ 
livia, and Chile. They comprise a region very remarkable for 
its volcanoes and earthquakes. 

2. Chile lies altogether on the western slope of the Andes. It 
is for the most part in the South Temperate Zone. 


















THE ANDEAN STATES. 


105 


3. Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia are within the Tropics, 
and are similar in surface, climate, and vegetation. 

4. Physical Features.—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru lie on 
both sides of the Andes. Each of them includes a narrow coast 
plain, a large area of mountains and table-lands, and a portion of 
the low forest plain at the eastern base of the mountains. Bolivia 
resembles its companion states, except that it has no seacoast. 

6. Climate and. Vegetation.—These states have every va¬ 
riety of climate and 
vegetation that can be 
found between the 
polar regions of eternal 
frost and the tropical 
regions of everlasting 
summer. 

Here, seated at the foot 
of a mountain, and 
surrounded with the 
luscious fruits of the 
tropics, one may cast 
his eyes up toward 
the snow-capped 

peak above him, and take in at one view tlie wliole 
range of the vegetable kingdom. 

Noted among the products is cinchona, or Peruvian bark, 
the bark of the cinchona tree. It yields the valuable 
medicine, quinine. The tree is indigenous to the eastern 
slopes of the Andes, north of latitude 23° S., and to no 
other part of the world. It is successfully cultivated, 
however, in India and Java, Central America, and the 
West Indies. 

6. The Mineral Resources of the Andean States 
are unsurpassed. They resemble those of our own 
Pacific Highland. 

7. Trade.—The rugged heights of the Andes present 
a formidable barrier to communication and commerce 
between the countries on their opposite sides. 

Three railways, however, already cross these mountains and connect 
Bolivia with the Pacific; another has been constructed from Chile 
into Argentina; another leads from Callao to Pasco along the head¬ 
waters of the Amazon. But transportation is in general carried 
on by means of mules or llamas, and is exceedingly tedious and 
dangerous. 

The llama is the camel of the New World. A million llamas are 
employed as beasts of burden in Bolivia alone. 

8. Colombia.—The Republic of Colombia is well situated for 
commerce, as it has long strips of coast and good harbors on both 



Punia Arenas (sandy point)t Chile, at the southern end of the Andes. The most southern 
town in the world. 


the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. In the llano region 
great herds of cattle are kept. 

Colombia formerly included the Isthmus of Panama, but in 1903 
Panama declared its independence, and set up a separate govern¬ 
ment of its own. 

9. Productions.—Silver, gold, platinum, and precious stones 
abound. The emeralds obtained are the purest in the world. 

The agricultural productions of every climate may be raisedhere. 

The chief exports are coffee, gold, silver, 
live-stock and hides, tobacco, rubber, and cot¬ 
ton. Coffee, cocoanuts, hides, and bananas 
are sent to the United States in exchange for 
our flour, cloths, meats, coal, and kerosene. 
The forests of the low plains contain many va¬ 
rieties of palms and bamboo. Higher up in 
the mountain regions grow the cinchona and 
the tree ferns. 

10. Cities. —Bogota, the capital, is situ¬ 
ated about 9,000 
feet above the sea 
level. It has two 
rainy seasons annu¬ 
ally, and its climate 
all the year round 
is delightful. 

Medellin, Car¬ 
tagena, and Bar- 
ranquilla are im¬ 
portant commercial 
towns. B u c a r a- 
luanga and Cucuta 
are large coffee cen¬ 
ters. A considerable 
trade passes down 
the Magdalena. 

11. Ecuador.—Ecuador is the Spanish for equator. This 
Republic is crossed by the Equator; hence its name. 

It contains a remarkable group of volcanoes. 

Among them is the dome-shaped Chimborazo, one of nature’s most 
imposing structures, standing at the enormous elevation of four 
miles above the level of the sea. This mountain may be seen by 
moonlight at a distance of ninety miles. 

Another of this wonderful array of burning mountains is the grand 
and terrific Cotopaxi. The noise of its eruptions is said to have 
been heard at the distance of six hundred miles. 

Tlie condor, the largest bird of flight in the world, dwells among the 
rugged heights of the Andes. He is fond of feeding upon the shell- 
flsh found on the beach of Ecuador, and will leave his home, 100 
miles distant, twice a day to secure his meals. 

12. Productions.—Ecuador contains deposits of gold, of em¬ 
eralds, quicksilver, iron, and copper and coal. Of agricultural 
products, the most important is cacao. 

The principal exports are cacao, coffee, hides, vegetable ivory, 
rubber, gold, and Panama hats. The imports are cotton and 
woolen goods from Europe, and machinery, flour, lumber, and 
kerosene from the United States. 

13. Cities.—Quito, the capital and largest city, is situated 



Coal mines at Lota. 


































106 


ECUADOR AND PERU. 





nearly two miles 
above the level 
of the sea. 

No less than eleven 
peaks, all white 
with their snow- 
caps, are in full 
view from the pla¬ 
za, or great public 
square of this city. 

Guaya<iiiil, the 
Ijrincipal seaport, 
has extensive 


1. Peru.—Peru 
has been famed 
from the earliest 
times for the al¬ 
most fabulous 
wealth of its mines. 

Silver and gold, 
quicksilver, cop¬ 
per, lead, and iron 
abound. The 
silver mines of 
Pasco are among 
the most celebra- 

Kailroad on the western slope ot the Andes in feru, 13,000 feet 
ted in the AVOrld. above sea level, showing the wrren regions, with Mt. Misti and Mt. 

Chambarri lowering above it. 

Many years ago silver was used in Peru as the baser metals are with 
us; tires of carriage-wheels, and the commonest household utensils 
were of solid silver. In the early days of the Republic it was not un¬ 
common to see Indians sitting at dinner on the earth floor of their hut, 
and eating, without the aid of knife, fork, or spoon, out of a massive 
silver dish. 


The cotton-plant, tobacco, and the sweet potato grow all the year, and 
the tobacco produces continuously. Medicinal plants, such as the coca 
shrub and the cinchona tree, and valuable dye woods, are found in 
the forests. Large quantities of rubber also are gathered and sent 
down the Amazon to Para. 

The chief exports are copper, cotton, sugar, petroleum, rubber, 
wool, hides, guano, and Panama hats. All of these products are 
exjiorted to some extent.to the United States in return for our 
machinery, tools, paints, foods, dry goods, lumber, and kerosene. 

Peru is one of the leading South American States in the construction 
of railways and telegraphs. 

Early Civilization.—When Europeans first visited South America, 
Peru was occupied by a highly civilized tribe of Indians. The 
remains of their great road from Quito to Cuzco, and thence along the 
plateau of the Andes into Chile, are still to be seen. This road was 
1,500 miles long and 40 feet wide. In constructing it, ravines were 
crossed by suspension bridges, and galleries were cut through the rock. 

In Cuzco was the great temple of the sun, which, in its day, far sur¬ 
passed in costliness of decoration any edifice in Europe. 


A wire bridge over a mountain stream on the eastern slojies of the 

Andes in Peru. 


4. Cities.—Li¬ 
ma, thecapital, has 
a noble cathedral, 
a museum, and a 
national library. 
Its houses are built 
of sun-dried clay. 
Earthquakes have 
desolated it re¬ 
peatedly. It has 
railways to Callao 
and other points. 


Callao is the port 
of Lima. 

Arequipa (ar-e-ke'pah), the second important city, is noted for its 
manufacture of gold and silver tissue, and cottons and woolens. 
Like Lima, it has been laid in ruins several times by earthquakes. 

The great volcano of Misti, a truncated cone, rises on the outskirts of 
the city to the height of nearly 20,000 feet. 

Pasco, nearly 14,000 feet above the sea, is the highest city in the world. 

5. Bolivia was named in honor of the South American “Lib¬ 
erator,” Bolivar, to whom it owes its independence. 

6. Surface.—This republic is very mountainous, and completely 
shut in from the sea. Western Bolivia contains the highest 
plateaus and ridges of the Andes. Lake Titicaca is partly in Bo¬ 
livia. It is nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the.sea. Here 
the pressure of the atmosphere is greatly diminished, and evapora¬ 
tion is so rapid 
that the water is 
taken up from the 
lake as fast as the 
rivers pour it in. 

The lake is navi¬ 
gated by steamers. 

7. Climate.— 

East of the Andes 
the country is gen¬ 
erally well watered 
and fertile, but dry 

on the westof them. street in Lima. 


The Galapagos, or Turtle Islands, so called from the gigantic tortoises 
found here, belong to Ecuador. 

Review Topics.—Name the Andean States. Which lies entirely west of 
the Andes and mainly in the temperate zone? Which are within the Tropics? 
In wliat are these alike? Physical features. Climate and vegetation. What is 
said of the cinchona tree? The mineral resources. How is trade carried on 
across the Andes? The llama. How is Colombia situated? The Isthmus? The 
railway. Mineral products. Agricultural. Exports. Bogota. Other towns. 
Why is Ecuador so called? Chimborazo. Cotopaxi. The condor. Mineral pro¬ 
ductions. Agricultural. Exports. Quito. What is its port? Galapagos Islands. 


LIII. PERIT, BOLIVIA, AN^D CHILE. 


Market in Quito, Ecuador. 


manufactures. 


2. Rainless Region.—West of the Andes Peru is nearly 
rainless. 

On the wharves of Callao bags of wheat may be seen lying there for 
months together in the open air, with no more protection from the 
weather in that rainless port.than if it had been a pile of paving- 
stones. 

The sea along this rainless coast is the most gentle part of the 
ocean. It is seldom ruffled by a storm. Rainless shores are 
washed by stormless seas. 

Western Peru is supplied with water, both for drinking and for irrigat¬ 
ing the fields, from the mountain streams formed by the melting 
snows of tlie Cordilleras. Cultivation depends almost entirely upon 
irrigation. 

3. Productions.—This rainless country, wherever there is 
water, produces the most beautiful flowers and delicious fruits. 























BOLIVIA AND CHILE. 


107 



8. Pro¬ 
ducts.— 
Bolivia, 
like Peru, 
is rich in 
minerals. 
Themoun- 
tains a- 


loaded with merchandise. 

bound in silver, copper, and 
tin. 

One of the products of Bo¬ 
livia and Peru is the plant called 
coca, which resembles tea. 

The leaf is chewed with unslaked 
lime by the natives of a largo 
part of South America, some¬ 
what as the betel-nut is used in the East 
use it to endure great fatigue for a short 


Lake Titicaca, and the straw boats used there. 

Indies. It enables those who 
time. 


contains the desert of Atacama {ah-tah-cah'mah). South of 
latitude 30° the rainfall is abundant. The prevailing westerly 
winds, coming from the Pacific, are laden with moisture which 
the Chilean Andes Avring from them. 

In Peru and northern Chile the western slopes of the Andes are rain¬ 
less and barren. In central and southern Chile the western slopes 
of tlie Andes are very fertile, making Chile the granary of all that 
part of South America bordering on the Pacific Ocean. In the 
southern part are vast tracts of valuable forests, and lumbering is 
becoming a leading industry. 

11. Productions.—Chile is a mineral region. Its 
copper and silver mines are profitably worked. 
Coal is extensively mined. The nitrate deposits of 
Iquique {e-Tcekay) are its most valuable form of 
mineral wealth. 

Nearly five hundred million tons of nitrate have been taken 
from the Chile fields and exported, largely to Europe. 
The nitrate mines are run almost entirely by British capital. 
In the last few years there have been established sugar 
refineries, sawmills, machine shops, and quite extensive 
cotton factories. Manufactured goods are, however, 
largely brought from Europe. 


Chile produces the finest of wheat and the best of timber. 
The chief exports are nitrate, copper, hides, and wheat. 






The chief exports are tin, silver, rubber, copper, bismuth, cin¬ 
chona, and coca. On account of its inland situation, Bolivia has little 
foreign trade. Cottons and Avoolen goods, machinery, and hard¬ 
ware are imported by way of Molendo and Antofagasta. 

9. Cities.—The most important cities are on the 
plateau. They have access to Pacific ports by means of 
railroads that run across the Andes and pass through Peru 
and Chile to the coast. 

ha Paz is the capital and chief city. It manufactures 
hats and woolens, and is the center of the coca and cin¬ 
chona trade. 

Sucre has a pleasant climate and is surrounded by fertile 
valleys. Here are located a university and a school of mines. 

Cochabamba contains factories of woolen and cotton goods 
and glassware. 

Potasi, more than 13,000 feet above the sea, is near the fa¬ 
mous silver mines. In its best days, when the mines were worked, it 
numbered 130,000 inhabitants. At present it contains only about 
12,000. The mines of Potosi have yielded silver to the amount of 
600,000,000 dollars. 

10. Chile.—Chile is a narrow strip of country lying on the 
western slope of the Andes, and extending to the sea. 

The northern portion comes within the rainless region. It 


The United States imports from Chile nitrate, wool, copper, and lead. 
Our exports to Chile are cloth, kerosene, iron and steel goods, lumber, 
and farming tools. Chile’s foreign trade is chiefly with England. 

12. This republic is one 
of the most enterprising 
in South America. It has 
public schools, good roads, 
and railroads connecting 

' . the larger toAA'ns. 

Juan Fernandez, the scene 


fertile valley. Compare tvith the narrow, barren valley in northern Chile, where there is no rain. 


of the solitary 
residence of Al¬ 
exander Selkirk 
for four years, is 
an island in the 
Pacific belong¬ 
ing to Chile. 

The Araucaniau 
Indians are 
found in the 
southern part of 
Chile. They are 
one of the most 
remarkable of 

uncivilized races. By their great courage they maintained their 
independence for centuries, but at length submitted to the Chilean 
Government. 

13. Cities. —Santiago is the capital; it has electric lights, 
street cars, and is a progressive city. 

The other important cities on the plateau are Concepcion, Chilian, 
and Talca. They are markets for grain and cattle. Antofagasta 
and lijiiique ship nitrates. 


Antofagasta, on the desert coast of Chile. Ships lie near the shore, and 
freight is carried to and from them on boats called lighters. Notice one 
filled with horses. The second ciU shows how cattle are hoisted to the ships. 















































108 


THE LA PLATA STATES: AEGENTINA. 






3. The Inhabitants are Indians or descendants of European 
races. They are Koman Catholic in religion. 

The herdsmen, who live on the pampas and are called gauclios, are 
most expert horsemen. They chase the ostrich, the wild horse, 
and the bullock, and throw the bola, a kind of lasso, with such pre¬ 
cision that they can catch the animal by the foot while it is lifted 
in flight. 

4. Argentina is the largest state in South America, except 
Brazil. It is a republic. It contains the pampas. 


Valparaiso. Notice t'le hills upon which the city is buil , and the narrow plain along the water¬ 
front. There is a quay at which ships discharge cargo. The harbor is so crowded that most of 
the ships lie at andior, and freight and passengers go to them on lighters and small boats. 


Valparaiso, the port of Santiago, and connected with it 
by railway, is the chief seaport of South America on the 
Pacific. 

Review Topics.—For what is Peru noted? Climate. Farming. Agricul¬ 
tural productions. Exports. Rank in railways. Who were the ancient inhabi¬ 
tants? Describe their great highway. Temple. What is said of Lima? Callao? 
Arequipa and its volcano? Pasco? Why was Bolivia so named? How is it situated? 
Lake Titicaca. What is said of its elevations? Minerals? Coca. Exports. 
Where are the most important cities? How connected with the Pacific? What is 
said of La Paz? Sucre? Cochabamba? Potosi? How is Chile situated? What 
partis desert? What is said of the rainfall? What makes Chile the granary of South 
America? The mineral products. Agricultural. Exports. Public Education. 
What island belongs to Chile? Santiago. Valparaiso. The Araucantan Indians. 


LIV. THE EA PLATA 
STATES. 


1. The La Plata States include 
Argentina, Paraguay, and Uru¬ 
guay. With the exception of 
Patagonia, which now forms a 
part of Argentina, they all lie in 
the valley of the Eio de la Plata. 

Rivers.—The La Plata, with the 
Parana and Paraguay, forms a 
continuous water route for the Paraguay. — Cattle 

commerce of this valley. Large steamers ascend far above Asuncion, 
while smaller ones penetrate to Cuyaba, in the heart of Brazil. 

The valley of the La Plata has one of the finest climates in the 
world, free from frost and remarkably healthful. 

2. Products.—The greater part of this region is a fine agri¬ 
cultural and grazing country. It is one of the world’s greatest 
wool producers and a leading section in the export of beef, mut¬ 
ton, and other animal products. 

Its soil is adapted to the cultivation of wheat, corn, coffee, 
tobacco, sugar, rice, cacao, hemp, flax, indigo, and manioc. 

Great numbers of cattle feed on the grassy pampas. 

The exports of the La Plata States are chiefly hides, horns, 
tallow, mutton, wool, wheat, tobacco, and yerba mate (mah'tay). 

Argentina imports textiles, clothing, pottery, glass, and machinery 
from Great Britain and Germany. From the United States she 
receives farming machinery, oil, lumber, twine, wire, railroad sup¬ 
plies, tools, and hardware. Next to animal products and wheat, 
flax-seed and sugar are the most important exports. We buy of 
Argentina raw wool, hides, goatskins, and the bones, horns, and 
hoofs of the cattle slaughtered. What use do we make of these 
things? 


Ships loading vnth beef at one of me wharves on the La Plata river at Buenos Aires. 

About 30,000,000 cattle and 80,000,000 sheep are pastured on the pampas. 
The public lands are "sold in large tracts to the ranchmen, who divide 
them into sections which they fence with wire. The ranch owners are 
mostly Englishmen and Scotchmen. The best cows are kept for dairy 
purposes. The best beef cattle are shipped alive to Europe. Fat sheep 
and lambs are also sent in the same way. But the live animals 

exported are equal to only one-six¬ 
teenth of the frozen and dried beef. 
The largest refrigerating plant for 
meat in the world is at Buenos Aires. 
A million carcasses of beef and three 
million of sheep are frozen and exported 
annually. Hides, wool, com, and 
wheat are also exported extensively. 

The population is largely for¬ 
eign. The liberal policy adopted 
toward settlers attracts many im¬ 
migrants from Southern Europe. 
on the pampas of the La Plata. Argentina has more railways 

than any other South American country. A tunnel through the 
Andes gives railway connection between Buenos Aires and Val¬ 
paraiso. Argentina provides excellent educational advantages. 

5. Cities. —Buenos Aires {ho'nus a'ris), the capital, is also 
the chief city of South America and seaport of the La Plata basin. 
Numerous lines of steamers connect it with foreign ports. 

Cordoba, La Plata, and Rosario are important towns. Tucu- 
inan stands in the garden spot of the Republic. 


Mayo Street, one of the principal business thoroughfares of Buenos Atrea, 

fh.fi mfiirnrtnfi.R rtf fh.fi r.nn.tinfi.nt 

































PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY—GENERAL REVIEW, 


109 



A noiiaay in Asuncion. 

Patag’Oiiia and Tierra del Fiiejfo comprise the southernmost parts 
of Soutli America. Tliese reg'ions belong' to Chile and Argentina. 
The climate of Southern Patagonia is very severe. The inhabitants 
of Patagonia are remarkable for their height. Many of them are 
nearly seven feet high. They are mostly nomads, and devote them¬ 
selves either to herding cattle and sheep or to hunting the rhea and 
guanaco. 

The Falkland I.sland.s are a British Colony.- The coasts teem with 
albatross and penguin, and the waters with fish. The islands are 
treeless, but “tussac grass.” five or si.x; feet high and resembling 
miniature palm-trees, fringes their borders. Sweet-scented wild 
flowers abound. 

The population is about 2,000. Stock-raising is the chief industry. 
Wool, hides, skins, and leather are sent to the mother country in ex¬ 
change for manufactured goods. 

6. Paraguay.—Paraguay is a small and unimportant republic. 
It is without any seacoast; but the Parana and the Paraguay 
rivers furnish cominunication with the ocean. Asuncion is the 
capital. The climate and soil are adapted to both tropical and 
temperate productions. Maize, manioc, tobacco, and oranges 


are raised extensively. Yerba, tobacco, and cattle products are 
exported. Our exports to Paraguay are chiefly hardware, kero¬ 
sene, and canvas; our imports, hides and vegetable extracts. 

Yerba {the vegetable) is the dried leaf of a kind of holly. From it 
mate, or Paraguay tea, is made, which is a favorite beverage in 
South America. 

7. Uruguay.—Uruguay is the smallest of the South American 
republics, but one of the most progressive. Public education is 
obligatory. The country is almost entirely a grazing region. 
The wool product is very large and forms the chief export. 

Montevideo, the capital, has an extensive commerce in cattle 
products. France, Belgium, and England are the largest cus¬ 
tomers. The La Plata at Montevideo is more than 60 miles wide. 





Bird’s-eye view 0 / Montevideo, showing the harbor and the ships with which it is always crowaed. 


Review Topics.—The La Plata States. Navigation of La Plata. Climate. 
Products. Exports. The inhabitants. Argentina. The pampas. The ranches. 
In what does this state take the lead? Buenos Aires. Other important places. 
The Patagonians. The Falkland Islands. Industries. Paraguay. Mate. The 
capital. Uruguay. Capital. 


GENERAL REVIEW. 


Name the three natural divisions of North America. Define each. 
What are the great rivers? Describe vegetation. Commercial advantages. 
Name political divisions. 

Give the natural divisions of the United States. Products and advan¬ 
tages of the Atlantic Slope. Of the Mississippi Valley. Of Pacific High¬ 
land and Slope. How many States and Territories are there? What are 
the departments of the Government of the United States? Describe each. 
Define State government. What are the leading agricultural productions 
of the United States? What of its domestic commerce? Transportation 
routes? Foreign commerce? Exports? Imports? 

Name the New England States, with capitals. Resources. Industries. 
In what does Maine excel? New Hampshire? Vermont? Massachusetts? 
Rhode Island? Connecticut? 

Name the Middle Atlantic States, with capitals. In what does this 
section surpass every other portion of the country? In what does New 
York rank first among the States? For what is New Jersey noted? Why? 
Of what three articles is Pennsylvania the largest producer? For what is 
Delaware famed? Maryland? Chesapeake Bay? What does the District 
of Columbia contain? What are the chief productions of Virginia? Of 
West Virginia? 

Name the Southern States. Capitals. What are the natural divisions 
of Tennessee? Products of each? What are the agricultural productions 
of South Carolina? Its most valuable mineral? For what is Georgia 
conspicuous? Florida? Alabama and Mississippi? Louisiana? Arkan¬ 
sas? In what does Texas surpass all other States? 

Name the Central States. The capitals. Chief cities. What portion 
of the country do these States occupy? What is their most striking 
feature? What may this region be called? For what is Kentucky noted? 
Chief industries of Ohio? Indiana? In what does Illinois rank high I 


among the States? What are the leading products of Michigan? Of 
Wisconsin? Minnesota? North and South Dakota? Missouri? Iowa? 
Kansas? Nebraska? 

What are the resources of the Rocky Mountain Region? Chief industry 
of the Plateau Region? Name mineral and agricultural products of 
California. What are the resources and industries of Oregon? Of Wash¬ 
ington? Alaska? 

What are the resources of Canada? Industries? Products of Ontario? 
What can you say of the inhabitants of Quebec? Industries of New 
Brunswick? _Exports of Nova Scotia? Manitoba? British Columbia? 
Newfoundland? For what is Labrador visited? What is exported from 
Greenland and Iceland? 

Describe the climate and productions of Mexico. Of Central America. 
What are the exports of the West Indies? Of Trinidad? Turk’s Islands? 
The Bermudas? 

Name the four natural divisions of South America. Describe the pam- 
pa.s. Selvas. Llanos. The Amazon. La Plata. Orinoco. What can you 
say of the temperature? Moisture? Effect of Andes? Minerals? Pro¬ 
ductions? Inhabitants? 

What is the great product of Brazil? Other exports? What is said of 
rainfall in the Guianas? Why was Venezuela so called ? Name pro¬ 
ductions. 

Name the Andean States. Describe surface. What part of the United 
States do they resemble in mineral wealth? How is transportation carried 
on? For what is Ecuador noted? What are its productions and exports? 
Peru? What portion of Peru is rainless? What are the productions? 
Exports of Bolivia? What does Chile produce? Name the La Plata States. 
Describe their great industries. What of climate? Exports? With what 
countries do they trade? 























EUROPE 


TjT. phtsical features. 

1. Excepting Australia, Europe is the smallest of the continents, 
and lies chiefly in the Temperate Zone. It is deeply indented 
by arms of the sea, and has therefore great facilities for commerce. 

The peninsulas of Greece, Italy, and Spain and Portugal project 
from its southern edge, and the Scandinavian peninsula from the 
northern. 

Europe and Asia really form one great body of land which is 
sometimes called Eurasia. 

2. Surface.—Europe consists of a mountain region in the 
south and a great central plain, bordered on the east and north¬ 
west by mountains. The northwestern coast is slowly sinking. 
The l^orth and Baltic Seas and the English channel were once 
part of the central plain. 

Mountain Ranges.— The principal ranges are The Pyrenees, 
The Alps, The Balkans, The Carpathians, and The Caucasus, which 
extend across Southern Europe eastward into Asia. The low 


border ranges on the northwest extend through the Scandinavian 
Peninsula and through Great Britain. 

The Alps are the highest mountains wholly in Europe. They are 
celebrated for their snow-clad peaks, beautiful lakes, and glaciers. 

The loftiest peaks are about 15,000 feet above the sea-level, and 
are crowned with perpetual snow. 

In the high valleys of these mountains are immense masses of ice, 
called glaciers, which are formed from the snow. They are always 
moving slowly down the mountains, and, melting at the lower end, 
become the sources of rivers. The most famous is the Mer de 

Glace {sea of ice). These and other 
mountains of southern Europe are 
still young, and have not been worn 
down like the older mountains of 
northwestern Europe. 

The Great Plain, or lowland, 
extends from the Ural Mountains 
westward to the Bay of Biscay, 
and from the Arctic Ocean south¬ 
ward to the Black Sea. 

Russia constitutes a large por¬ 
tion of it. That part of it which 
borders on the North Sea and the 
Bay of Biscay may be designated 
the Atlantic Plain. 

3. Rivers.—The rivei's of Eu¬ 
rope are much smaller than those 
of America. 



110 


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112 


EUKOPE. 


The mountain ranges of Europe extend some east and west, some north 
and south; they therefore divide the continent into a great number 
of small river basins. 

The mountains of North and South America, on tlie contrary, have a 
nearly uniform direction, and divide those continents into river 
basins wliich are few in number and immense in size. 

The Danube, the Ehine, the Rhone, and the Po rise in the 
Alps and flow into the Black Sea, the North Sea, the Mediter¬ 
ranean, and the Adriatic respectively. 

The principal rivers of the Great Plain have their origin in and 
near the Valdai Hills. The Volga is the longest river in Europe 


4. Climate.—Stretching from the heated waters of the Medi¬ 
terranean up to the Arctic Ocean, Europe has every variety of 
climate, except that of equatorial regions. 

Western Europe, from the North Cape to the Strait of Gib¬ 
raltar, has a milder climate than Eastern Euroi)e, and closely 
resembles that of the western coast of North America. 

This isowing to the warm sea winds from the southwest, and to 
the influence of the great oceanic flow, which begins in the Gulf 
Stream and ends in the Atlantic Drift. This current is clearly 
perceptible* at the Shetland Islands and off the coast of Norway. 



(2,300 miles). 


In the harbor of Hammerfest, within the Arctic circle, ice rarely 
forms. Oil the other hand, the Gulf of Finland, in Eastern Europe, 
though it lies 12° of latitude farther to the south, is closed witli ice 
every year from late in the fall till early in the summer. 

The Britisli Isles and Labrador lie between the same parallels 
of latitude; but, while the English winter is so mild that the pastures 
are green all the year, in Labrador the harbors are ice-bound, and 
the ground is covered with snow for nine or ten months in the year. 

The climate of Southern Europe is tempered by the tepid 
waters of the Mediterranean and the hot winds from the Sahara. 
Its summers are long and its winters mild and short. 

5. Minerals.—The mountainous portions of Europe are rich 

in minerals. Coal, iron, and salt, 
lead, tin, zinc, copper, and quick¬ 
silver abound. 

6. Vegetation. — Southern 
Europe is the land of the vine and 
the fig, the olive, the lemon, and 
the orange, and of rice and other 
semi-tropical grains. 

In Central Europe, between the 
Alps and the Valdai Hills, are 


The Rhone at Lyon, France. 


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TIME when it is Noot\ on the Meridian of Greenwich 
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114 


EUROPE: ANIMALS AND INHABITANTS. 


found the deciduous 
trees, the grains and or¬ 
chard fruits and vege¬ 
tables of the temperate 
zones. 

In Northern Europe 
we find forests of pine, 
fir, and spruce, and the 
hardy grains, with the 
dwarfed plants, mosses, 
and lichens which belong 
to the Arctic region. 

The extreme northern part 
of the Great Plain border¬ 
ing the Arctic Ocean is, for 
nine or ten months, one 
continuous expanse of 
snow and ice. In the sum¬ 
mer the ice melts and 
makes swamps, lakes, and marshes. The ground, however, is never 
thawed deeper than three feet, and the largest plant is a willow 
that grows about one finger high. 

7. Animals. — The domestic animals common in our ow)i 
country are found in nearly all parts of Europe. 

The forests abound with deer and wild boars, hares, foxes, and fur¬ 
bearing animals, as sable, marten, and mink. In the high 
Al]js and Pyrenees are found the chamois and wild goat, and in 
Northern Europe the reindeer, which furnishes a large part of 
the food and clothing of the inhabitants of Lapland. 

8. Contrasts with America. —Unlike America, Europe is 
an old country; its nations count their ages by centuries. 

Its re.sources are well developed and it overflows with popula¬ 
tion. It contains about four times as many inhabitants as the 
llnited States, and more than eight times as many as the whole 
of South America. 

In Europe, land is dear and labor abundant. In America^ 
land is comparatively cheap and labor comparatively scarce. 

Hence it is easier for a working man to make a living in America 
than in Europe. It is because of this that there is such a large 
migration from the Old World to the New. 

To an American who visits Europe for the first time, the most strik¬ 
ing features are the high state of improvement of the country, the 
excellence of the roads, the vast extent of cultivated lands in pro¬ 
portion to woodlands, the number of cities and villages. 

At one time the kings and nobles of Europe owned all the land and 

lived in palaces 
and castles. The 
great masses of the 
people were un¬ 
educated and very 
poor. Many of 
these old palaces 
and castles are still 
standing in dif¬ 
ferent parts of 
Europe, especially 
along the valley 
of the Rhine, in 
northern France, 
and in England. 




A castle in Bavaria, near Munich, 


9. Inhabitants. —The inhabitants of Euro[)e, in the main, are 
Caucasians. They may be classified as belonging mainly to three 
great families, the Teutonic, Latin, and Slavonic. 



An old castle in Sussex, England. 


The Teutonic family includes the people of Germany, Scandinavia, 
and England. Russia is the home of the Slavonic branch, but 
there are other races also in European Russia. The Latin races 
include principally the people of France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. 

The Caucasian race originated in Central Asia. Certain tribes from 
time to time wandered to Europe and settled in different parts of 
that continent. Separated by mountains and other barriers, there 
was little communication between them. They had no written 
language, and in the centuries that passed, each developed a lan¬ 
guage for itself, so that these tribes became different nations. But 
many words, like father and mother’, are nearly alike in all these 
languages. 

Review Topics. —Compare Europe in size with the other continents. Wliat 
gives it tlie great facilities for commerce ? Principal mountain ranges. ’I'he Alps. 
Their glaciers. The Great Plain. The Atlantic Plain. Compare in .size the rivers 
of Europe and the New World. In what direction do the mountain ranges of 
Europe extend ? Of America ? What effect on river basins ? Principal rivers of 
Europe ? Describe the Volga. What varieties of climate has Europe ? Comijare 
the climates of Eastern and Western Europe. Of Hamnierfest and the Gulf of Fin¬ 
land. Of the BritLsh Islands and Labrador. Climate of Southern Europe. What 
minerals abound ? Describe the vegetation of Southern Europe ; Central; North¬ 
ern. The animals. Contrasts with America. Inliabitants. 


Political Divisions of Europe. 


Area. .Square Miles. 


.\lbania. 

Austria. 

Belgium... . . 

Bulgaria. 

Czechoslovakia . 

Danzig. 

Denmark. 

Esthonia. 

Finland. 

France. 

Germany. 

Greece. 

Hungary. 

Irish Free .State.. . 

Italy. 

Latvia. 

Lithuania. 

Lu.xeml)urg. 

Netherlands. 

Norway. 

Poland. 

Portugal. 

Roumania. 

Hussia-in-Europe.. 

iSarre Basin. 

.Spain. 

Sweden. 

.Switzerland. 

Turkey-in-Europe. 
United Kingdom. . 

England . 

IF ales . 

Scotland . 

Northern Ireland 
Yugoslavia. 


11,000 
;i 1,700 

11.700 
40,000 

54.700 
600 

10,585 

18,500 

130,000 

212 , 8’22 

179,.500 

42,000 

30,000 

27,040 

123,010 

24,000 

25,000 

999 

12,772 

1‘24,710 

149,000 

34,204 

110,000 

I,7ie,.500 

7.50 

192,000 

172,928 

15,950 

10,000 

94,350 

60,850 

7,473 

30,405 

5,320 

95,000 


Population. 


832,000 

0,131,000 

7,084,000 

4,910,000 

13,590,000 

305,000 

3,289,000 

1 , 110,000 

3,307,000 

39,210,000 

.59,857,000 

4,932,000 

7,841,000 

3,140,000 

40,120,000 

1,503,000 

2,:i00,000 

264,000 

6,841,000 

2,646,(X)0 

27,442,000 

5,.546,000 

17,393,000 

93,782,000 

658,000 

20,784,000 

5,904,000 

3,880,000 

1,800,000 

44,168,000 

35,679,000 

2,207,000 

4,882,000 

1,250,000 

12,017,000 




































































GREAT RRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


115 


LVI. GREAT BRITAIX AND IIIELAXI). 



Durham Cathedral in the north o/ England. 


1. The British Isles consist of two large islands, Great Britain 
and Ireland, and a number of smaller ones. Great Britain, the 
largest of these islands, includes England, Scotland, and Wales. 
The political divisions of the British Isles are the United Kingdoiu, 
comprising England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and the 
Irisli Free State. 


4. Surface.—Scotland, Wales, and the north of England are 
rugged, hilly, and mountainous. The eastern part of England 
is loAvland. Many parts of the island are verv picturesque. 



Scottish sceiury at Dufftown, 7iear Aberdeen. 


In Seotlaiid and the nortli of England are beautiful lakes which 
hi.story, song, and story have made famous. Many tourists visit the 
Highlands and the islands off the coast to enjoy the romantic 
scenery. 

White, chalky cliff's ri.se on the .south coa.st of thei.sland, near the Strait 
of l)ovi‘r. Much of the interior of Ireland is lowland, with low 
mountains near the coast. 



2. Domain. —The United Kingdom, a small country, has estab¬ 
lished her colonies so widely that the sun never sets u|X)n them. 

She rules more than one-fourth of all the people, and controls one- 
fourth of all the land in the world. All her possessions together 
make the British Empire 
The following are her 
most important foreign 
posse.ssions: 

In Europe.—Malta and 
Gibraltar. 

In Asia.—British India, 

Cypru.s, Ceylon, Hong¬ 
kong, the Straits Set¬ 
tlements, Iraq, Pales¬ 
tine. 

In Africa.—Anglo-Egyp- 
tian Sudan, Sierra Leone, 

Gambia, Gold Coast, 

Kio-Avi.j T'ninn nf Ciniitli Unloading American cattle from a 
IMgeiia, t nion OI ooutn steamship at Manchester. 

Africa, Basutoland, Rhodesia, Bechuanaland, Nyasa- 
land, Zanzibar, Kenya, Tanganyika Territory, 

Uganda, and British Somaliland. 

In Australasia and Oceania.—Australia, Tas¬ 
mania, New Zealand, parts of Xew Guinea and 
Borneo, Fiji, and many other groups of islands in 
the Pacific. 

In America.—Canada, Newfoundland, British Hon- 
dui'as, Jamaica, Bahamas, part of Lesser Antilles, 

British Guiana. Ti’inidad. Bermudas. 

3. People. —The people are noted for enter¬ 
prise in trade, soundness in learnino-, and devotion Manchester ship canal, a lock is shown in the foreground of the picture. 

I ’ o' V background is a viaduct over which is carried another canal. 

are leaders in the civilization of the world. 


to liberty. They 
They and we have the same language, the same ideas of law and 
liberty. 

W e carry on more commerce with them, and are more closely allied to 
them than to any other nation. The geography of Great Britain, 
therefore, is almost as interesting to us as the geography of our 
own country. 


5. Climate.—Great Britain is in the region of west winds 
which have been heated by the warm waters of the Atlantic 
Drift, or terminal current of the Gulf Stream, and consequently, 
although its latitude is that of Labrador, its climate is remark¬ 
ably mild and equable. The mercury rarely 
approaches zero. 

The Seilly Tsiaiids have a wonderfullj' mild climate. 
^In Scotland tlie winter winds are cold, and the 
nights long. In the extreme northern parts there is 
at the time of the summer solstice no night. The sun 
sets, hut a twilight, bright enough to read by, lasts 
until sunrise. 

6. Mineral Wealth.—Great Britain is rich in 
coal and iron, which are the basis of her yast 
mining and manufacturing interests. Tin, salt, 
and valuable pottery clays 
are also found. 

In Cornwall the tin 
mines have been worked 
far under the bed of the sea. 

7. Agriculture_The 

land is highly cultivated. 
^yheat, oats, and barley, 
hay, pease, hops, and the 
root crops are the chief 
agricultural products. 
The country is well 
adapted to grazing, and 
is famous for its breeds of horses, cattle, and sheep. The 
po]iulation of Great Britain is so great that her agricultural 
products supply food for only a small part of her people. Meats, 
grain, fruits, and vegetables are imported. 

8. Manufacturing.—Great Britain excels all other countries 
but the United States in the value of her manufactures. 

Textiles of all kinds, pottery, and ii*on wares are the chief productions. 







































Longitude 


^ORKNEY 
IS. = 


HOY ••Xcq 5 

rentUnui*i. 


C.WRATH 


UNST 


lurncss 


cansby 


BUTT OF LEWIS 


FETLAR 


YELL I 


KINNAIRO’.S 
k HEAD 


NORTH 
UI^T I.' 


BonfJ 


SOUTF 
UI8T I 


:Aberdeen 


lOOti Square Miles 


EIGG I 




COLL I 


XJRCE I 


>9 # A 

STAFFA I. A 
Jufiyar* Cave^ 

IONA 


TirHi of Ta 




C0L0N6AY I. 


Dunbar 


la^ington 


aiiH] 


MALIN head 


Campbell- 
^ town 


RATHLIN 


reS Nkwbas^A 


\Gretni 


South Shields 
j,teiiheaakl g underland 


Penri 


DoncO«'' 


ERR.SHEAO 


LAMBOFOSTGrt 
I HEAD._ 


Cavan 


Oara, 


Omni) 


JJalbriggan 


rlullingarj^'^ 

SSS^laynootl 


uam 


SLVnE. 

head 


Blrkenj,^ 


u^blin 

Kingstown 


Sheffiel 


,W Icklow 


Notiin 


Lynn 

I No 


irton 


: liken ny 


Cashel 


Waterfi 


VAL6NTIA M 


fFennoy 


6T.0AV18 

HEApfll 


lOnniQUl 


Gloucester 


^eVrn^sR* 


LUNDY 1.^ 

HARTLAND POlNTi 


“Wiiicjiester 


beacny 


^^E OF 
WIGHT 


aun< 


orquay Portland 
BILL 


START PQml 


Penzan^ 


'alinouth 


LIZARD POINT 


SOILLY 

ISLES 


ALOERNEY 


.GUERNSEY 

.TWrre 


8ARK 


SUleliEf 


Eiitirld 


Watford 


,<lMiV>ndtO! 


loway ^ 
Ktvrid^ 


'enml 




PaowelJi 

BrentfV 

HounsloY^r 


BlAckbeatb 


Norw 

sUon 


^ptoi 

Court 


Bromley 


Malden 


C5 

JUice CuUFW 


THE 

BRITISH ISLES 


fiYjin Greens ich 


8 Longitude nest 


S11ETLA>1) 1SLA>J)S 

AND 

OKKT^EY ISLANDS 

(Same Scale as large Map) .c, • 




WHAL6EY 

I. 


SCALE OF MILES 


FOOL .1. 


r\ 

sumburgh 

HEAD 


8T.KILDA I. 


EAIR 


NORTH 

RONALOSHA 


WE8t\a..^ jU 


8ANDA I. 


STROUBA 


V PO 


AKu'kwaTl 


«MA 


HOY I. 


SOUTH 


penf/«/fQr^^*VRONAL08HA 1. 


SCOT- 
I.AND > ^ 


'^*^SWFN MEAD . r*T * 


Fori J 

-.... -j. Bay • 

arr^n id!%- 


THE NAiE 


P arrow 


LONDON 

and Vicinity 


. SCALE OF MILES 


Txingitude 


Last from 


AVashington 











































































































































































/ 


GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


117 



9. Great Britain is the foremost commercial country on the 
globe. For centuries her sailors and merchants have been es¬ 
tablishing trade routes in all parts of the world. Her merchant 
vessels nearly equal in tonnage those 
of all other nations combined, and 
carry not only her own goods, but 
nearly half the goods of the other 
nations that lie along her routes of 
trade. This carrying trade is a great 
source of wealth to her. The navy of 
Great Britain is much larger and more 
powerful than that of any other 
nation in the 
world. 

10. The Gov¬ 
ernment of Great 
Britain is a con¬ 
stitutional mon¬ 
archy. The crown 
is hereditary. 


piers extend along the river for twenty miles. Its chief imports are 
cotfee, tea, spices, and cocoa, and its exports are manufactured articles. 
Its manufactures are varied and extensive. 

London is the great money center of the Empire and the world, and 
trade balances between foreign merchants 
are paid through its banks. Distances east 
or west around the world are measured by 
all civilized nations frotn the Meridian of 
Greenwich at London, and all ship chi’o- 
nometers carry Greenwich time. 

It is situated on both banks of the Thames, 
and covers an area nearly twice as large 
as the District of Columbia. It has more 
than 6,000,000 inhabitants. Parliament 
sits, and the king holds his court, in 
London. Some of the most noted public 
buildings in London are the House of 
Parliament, Westminster Abbey, the 
Tower, and the British Museum. 

Liverpool ranks next to London in commerce. It is the 
great cotton market of Europe. Manelie.ster is the chief 
center of cotton manufacture. 


Room of the same factory 
where these castings are being 
put ogether so as to form the 
frame of a machine for spin¬ 
ning cotton thread, such as is 
shown on page 56. 


The executive 
power is vested 
in the Cabinet, 

which consists Building texlitemachinery at Manchester. England, showing the foundry where i_ 

melted in a furnace and run into molds which giiie each piece its proper shape. 
oi bne iTiiins- n hen cold, these castings are finished by machinery. 


Birmingliain is in the “Black Country”—so called from the 
number of its coal and iron mines. It is the great iron market 
of England. 

Leeds is widely known for its iron and steel industries, and for 
the manufacture of woolens and clothing; Bradford for broad¬ 
cloth and worsted goods of every sort; Nottingham for laces 
and hosiery; and Newcastle for coal trade, glass bottles. 



ters, or heads of the several departments of the Government. I and chemicals. 

Parliament is the legislative branch of the Government, and corre- ! Sheffield is celebrated for 
sponds to our Congress. It consists of the House of Lords and the j itscutleiy. steel, and plated 
House of Commons. The members of the latter are 
chosen by the people. The members of the House of 
Lords are nobles and bishops. 

11. Religion and Education. —The majority of 
the people profess the Protestant religion. 

The Episcopal Church is the Established Church in 
England; the Presbyterian in Scotland; both are en¬ 
dowed by the Government. The majority of the peo¬ 
ple in Ireland are Roman Catholics. 

Education is compuLsory and there are public schools 
throughout Great Bidtain. 

12. Cities. — Loudon, the capital of the United 
Kingdom, is the largest city in the world, and the 
first in commercial importance. 

On the Thames, fifty miles from its mouth, it is in the 
heart of England, and yet a great .seaport with a short 
waterway to the mainland of Euroi)e. Its docks and [Copyright, k.y. Young.] 


JitCCOiQ-Xtly \CXlt 1} CLTlCL lOlTCcl fCUC i IZLO JuTflOUS OlQ 

streets in London which are so narrow arid crowded that 
street cars are not used. Notice the omnibuses in which 
people ride. At the head of Fleet Street can be seen the dome 
of St. Paul’s Cathedral. 


map studies.—N ame the British Isles. What three divisions 
occupy the largest of them? Where is Scotland? Wales? 

England and Walc.s. —What sea on the east? Channel and strait 
between England and France? What waters between Great Britain and 
Ireland? What hills between Scotland and England? Whei-e is Anglesey? 
Holyhead? Isle of Wight? Where are the Scilly Isles? Channel Islands? 
Where is Morecambe Bay? Cardigan Bay? Bristol Channel? The Wash? 
Menai Straits. What j^art of England is most mountainous? Where is 
Mt. Snowdon? What is the capital? On what river? Where is Liver¬ 
pool? On what river? Where is Manchester? Salford? Bradford? 
Sheffield? Nottingham? Leicester? Brighton? Portsmouth? Birming¬ 
ham? Leeds? Bristol? Newcastle? Oxford? Cambridge? Cardiff? 

Scotland. —By what ocean is Scotland nearly surrounded? What 
channel .separates it from Ireland? What sea on the east? What islands 
on the north? Where is the Minch? Where are the Shetland Islands 


(see map of Europe) ? Where are the Hebrides? Staffa? Staff a contains 
Fingal's Cave. The hays on the Scotch coast are called Friths or 
Firths. Where is the Frith of Forth? Tay? Moray Firth? Dornoch? 
Solway Firth? What hills in the central part of Scotland? Where is 
Ben Nevis? This is the loftiest peak in Great Britain, and is about 
4,400 feet high. What canal crosses the northern part of Scotland? 
Where is Edinbui’gh? Glasgow? On what river? This river is famed 
for the ocean steamships built upon it. Where is Dundee? Inverness? 
Aberdeen? Dumfries? Paisley? 

Ireland. —What bodies of water separate Ireland from England? 
From Scotland? What ocean west and south? Which portions of the 
island are mountainous? Where are the Wicklow Mts.? TV here is Cape 
Clear? How is Ireland divided politically? In what part of Ireland is the 
Irish Free State? Where is Northern Ireland? Where is Dublin? Belfast? 
Cork? Queenstown? Londonderry? Limerick? IMaynooth? 
































118 


GEE AT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 




ware. Southampton, Bri.stol, and Hull are important sea¬ 
ports. 

Portsmouth and Chatham are among the chief naval stations. 

At Oxford and Camhri<lge are celebrated universities. 

Glasgow is the chief manufacturing center, and the largest city 

in Scotland. 
It is the sec¬ 
ond largest 
in Great 
Britain. 

It is celebrat¬ 
ed for its cot¬ 
ton goods, 
chemicals, 
iron and 
steel steam¬ 
ships, and 
marine en¬ 
gines. 


at high tide through gates like the gates of a canal. The gates are then 
closed, and the water level in the dock remains the same. Passengers are 
landed at a floating stage. 


Edinburgh, on account of its institutions of learning and its 
historic past, is the most illustrious city in Scotland. It is noted 
for the publishing of books and maps. 

Dundee is e.vtensively engaged in the manufacture of 
linens, and Paisley in the manufacture of shawls and 
carpet and cotton thread. 

Inverness stands at the northern terminus of the Cale¬ 
donian Canal, which makes a water route from the 
Atlantic to the German Ocean. 

C'ardiff,thechiefcity andportof Wales, has agreatcoal trade. 


15. The Irish Free State includes the greater part of Ireland. 
Dublin, the capital, is a handsome, flourishing city, and manufactures 
chemicals and mineral waters. Cork, on the river Lee, is an important 

commercial city. At Queens¬ 
town, the seaport of Cork, trans- 
Atlantic steamers take on and put 
off mail and passengers. Limer¬ 
ick and Water¬ 


ford are other 
prominent ports. 

16. North¬ 
ern Ireland 

occupies the 
northeastern 
part of Ireland. 

Belfast, the 
chief city, manu¬ 
factures more 
linen goods than 
any other city in 
the world and 
has large ship¬ 
building inter- 

J .Li -L- 1 T 1 L L 1 Li L -1 l1 “’nere me Jioera are arawn out ana nmslea into'• cora. - rnese coraa, tartner Loildoil 

il rst» Ol tn© XSlGS to C&<tiCD. LIIG west winds ns tllGy com© drawn out, are spun into thread, and woven into cloth by spinners and looms, is im- 

. . , * very much like those used for cotton. {See page 54.) Tne third cut shows ^ 


13. Ireland, in general, is a rolling country. j\ruch 
of the coast 
region con¬ 
tains mountain 
ranges of slight 
elevation. 

In the south¬ 
west ai'e the 
far-famed 
lakes of Kil- 
larnev. 


Making linen in Belfast, Ireland. Flax is a fiber like cotton o wool, but is 
taken from the stalk of the plant. It was formerly cleaned by hand. Now this 
is done by a “ hackling** machine, shown in cut 1. You can see the long row 


The climate is very moist and mild, because Ireland is the 


smooth. They then pass to the machine shown in the second cut, 
where the fibers are drawn out and twisted into cord.** These cords, farther 


from the sea, warm and laden with moisture. 


lace makers at work. 


portant port. 


14. Produc¬ 
tions.— Ireland 
is deficient in 
mineral resour¬ 
ces. Coal is scan¬ 
ty, and peat is of¬ 
ten used for fuel. 

The most im¬ 



portant crop.s are 
oats and potatoes. 

The latter are the 
chief article of 
food among the laboring classes, 
and the best of linen is made. 


The famous vale of Avoca, in County Wicklow, Ireland, one of the 
most picturesque spots in Europe. 

Flax is extensively grown. 


Ireland is a fine stock country. Tlie cattle find pasture even in winter. 


Rainfalls are frequent, especially in the southwest. The fields, even in 
winter, are always green, and Ireland is tlierefore called the 
“Emerald Isle." 



.4 shipyard at Glasgow on the river Clyde, showing an immense passenger steamer 
nearly ready for launching. 


17. The Isle of Man, lying in the Irish Sea, although a part 
of the British Empire is practically independent. Several pictur¬ 
esque islands, called the Channel Islands, lie across the English 
Channel very near to France, but belong to Great Britain. The 
largest of these are Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney. They are 
noted for their fine cattle. You have seen cow's called Jerseys, 
Guern.seys and Alderneys. North of Scotland are groups of rugged 
islands called the Orkney l.slands, the Shetland Islands, and, 
northwest, the Hebrides or W«‘stern Isles. 

Review T«q)ies. —Great Britain consists of what? Describe her foreign pos¬ 
sessions. Tlie people. The surface. The climate. What are the chief minerals? 
Agricultural products? Manufactures? Describe commerce. Her carrying trade. 
Her navy. The government. The religion. London. Inverpool. Glasgow. 
Kdinbnrgh. ^lanchester. Birmingham. Leeds. ShefTield. Newcastle. Notting¬ 
ham. Portsmouth and Chatham. Oxford and Cambridge. Inverness. Cardiff. 
Describe the surface of Ireland. Climate. Productions. Dublin. Belfast. The 
Isle of Man. The Channel Islands. The Shetland Islands. The Hebrides. 
































FRANCE. 


119 


LVII. FRANCE. 

1. France is only a little larger than Mississippi, Alabama, 
(ieorgia, and Florida together, but its population is about two- 
tifths that of the United States. 

The Great Plain extends across nortliern and western France 
to the Ba}’’ of Biscay, broken by highlands in Normandy and 
Brittany. Southeast of this is the Central Plateau, and beyond 
the mountain region of Southern Europe. Ranges of the Alps, 
including Mt. Blanc, the highest peak, are in France. 





The Rhone, the Seine, the Loire, and Oaronne are the principal 
rivers. With the canals connecting them they form the cliief means 

of transportation. 

2. Climate.— 
The latitude of 
F ranee c o r r e - 
spends nearly to 
that of Maine, 
but its climate is 
far milder. The 


winds from the Atlantic and the 
Mediterranean modify the tem¬ 
perature. 

3. Productions.—In South¬ 
ern France the vine, the olive, 
the orange, the pomegranate, 
the fig, and the silkworm all 
thrive. Sheep are raised in 
large numbers. 


On the plain, southwest France, showing the river Garonne, a railroad, and a canal which is 
carried across both by an aqueduct bridge. 

4. Occupations.—The people are unsurpassed for thrift and 
industry. They are largely engaged in agriculture, manufactur¬ 
ing, mining, and fishing. 

Silk culture is extensively carried on. The value of the cocoons 
annually produced is about $15,000,000. 

France has a high rank in luauufactures, and excels in silks, 
velvets, and woolens, perfumes, jewelry, ladies’ dresses, and 
millinery. 

The French artisans surpass all others in the designijig of patterns, 

and in the arrangement of colors. 

The sardine fisheries of the Mediter¬ 
ranean and west coasts, the oyster 
fisheries, and the cod fisheries of the 
Atlantic and the Banks of Newfound¬ 
land are very important. 

In foreign and domestic com¬ 
merce France is one of the leading 
countries of Europe. She imports 
from the United States, cotton, 
petroleum, meat, and grain in 


Wine-tnakiiig in France. A vineyard in Champagne, near Reims, show- 
1 -n .1 • grapes are gathered. Above, the grapes are being brought to 

Central r ranee is the wine presses, and below is a cellar showing the large vats and casks in 

which the unne is stored. 


and maize region. 

The districts of Champagne and Burgundy, and the valleys of the 
Garonne and Dordogne, constitute the greatest wiue-produciiig 
region in the world. 

In Northern France the chief products are grain, orchard 
fruits, and root crops. 

The beet root is extensively cultivated for making sugar. 

France grows more than 300 million bushels of wheat a year, yet she 
must import a considerable amount. In the northwestern part 


In the mountains of southern France, showing a graded public road. 


enormous quan¬ 
tities. France 
buys more goods 
from the United 
States than from 
any other coun¬ 
try except Great 
Britain, and sells to us an amount of her manufactures about 
equal in value to her imports from this country. 

More than 100 canals unite tlie various rivers. Railways extend from 
Paris to all parts of France and the continent. Steamers sail to all 
the principal ports of the world. 

Silks, woolen and cotton goods, wines, jewelry, millinery, gloves, and 
ladies’ clothing are the chief exports. 

5. Government and Religion.—France is a Republic. The 
people enjoy religious freedom. The majority are Roman Catholics. 

Public education is free and compulsory. 

The French are descendants of the Celts and of the Franks, a German 
tribe who conquered them. 

In Brittany are found the Bretons, who are of the Celtic race. 


dairying forms an important occupation, and cheese and butter 
are exj^orted. Near the northeastern Belgian border and in the 
eastern mountains coal and iron are extensively mined. Near by 
are great manufacturing cities. 


6. Cities.—Paris is the most splendid city and one of the 
most influential capitals in the world. The French language is the 
one in which the diplomats of Europe generally hold intercourse. 









































120 


FRANCE. * 




Cherbourff, with 
its fine breakwater, 
Brest, and Toulon 


Paris manufactures an endless variety of 
articles, from the finest cambric needle to the 
most powerful steam-engine. 

It is famed for its jewelry, gloves, perfumery, aiul 
fancy articles of all sorts. It sets the fashion in 
dress for Europe and America. Its schools 
and other institutions of learning, its scientific 
societies, libraries, and public buildings arc 
unsurpassed. 

The palace of the Tuileries, the Bourse (Ex¬ 
change), the churches of Notre Dame and the 
Madeleine, are among the most interesting 
public buildings. The Champs Elysees (Elysian 

glass ai Jeumont. Glass is made of sand and soda (or some 
Fields) is one of the most beautiful streets in alkali) melted together in a furnace. This melted glass is draum from the furnace and 

poured upon a broad plate, as shown xn the cut. An immense xron roller xs rolled over the soft 
mass until a perfect plate of the thickness desired is produced. 

and woolens, an<l Boiibaix for its cloth-tinishiug mills 
At Reims the sovereigns of France used to be crowned. It is largely 


the world. 

Havre is the port of Paris through which come raw cotton, 
tobacco, wheat, wool, coffee, and animal products from America. 


are the great naval 
stations of France. 


The winters at Tou¬ 
lon are so mild that 
the fig, date, orange, 
aloe, and pomegran¬ 
ate flourish in the 
open air. Amiens 
is noted for its cotton 
and woolen goods, 
Nismes for its silks 


engaged in the manufacture of woolens and in the sale of wines. In 
Bayonne the first bayonets were made. Hence their name. 

At Nantes (nantz) the famous edict giving religious freedom was 


signed by Henry IV., in 1.598. The city is largely engaged in 
commerce. Sevres (.sdur) and Liimoges are noted for their 
porcelain. 


Versailles, near Paris, contains a pai'k and a magnilicent pal¬ 
ace built by the architect Mansard as a residence for Louis XIV. 

Lyon is the third city in France, and the foremost of all in 
silk manufactures. It employs many tliousand persons in this 
industry. 

UFarseille is the largest seaport and second largest city in France. 



View of the city of Paris, showing the Seine, with its famous bridges, and the Isle of France. 


The docks of Marseille are among the finest in the world. The city 
is extensively engaged in manufacturing olive oil and macaroni, and 
has also a very large trade in silks, fruits, wines, and olive oil. 

Bordeaux is noted for its wines; Lille for its linen and cotton 
goods, and beet-root sugar. 

Toulouse is famed for its steel works, cannon foundries, and 
woolen factories; Rouen, the “Manchester of France,” for its 


7. Alsace-Lorraine. —At the close of the World War in 
1918, Germany ceded to France the provinces of Alsace and Lor¬ 
raine and the coal mines of the Sarre Basin. Alsace contains 
mines of potash and the important cities of Strasbourg and Mul- 
house. Lorraine contains the richest beds of iron ore in Western 
Europe. These, with the adjoining coal mines on the Sarre, will 
partly compensate for the destruction by the Germans of French 
towns, factories, mines, and farms. i\Iost of Alsace-Lorraine is a 
good farming country, but it is still more valuable for its mines, 
manufactures, and waterways. The Rhine, now open to the traffic 
of all nations, is a great artery of north-south commerce, and is 
connected by canals with the Rhone and the Seine. 

Colonial po.ssession.s.—The most important colonial possessions of 
France are—in Africa, Algeria, Tnnis, ^lorocco, French Equatorial 
Africa, French West Africa and the Sahara, and Madagascar; in 
Asia, French Indo-China; in the New World, French Guiana 
and the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe ; in Oceania, Ncav 
Caledonia, Tahiti, and the Marquesas. 

The island of Corsica, in the Mediterranean, belongs to France. It is 
a mass of mountains and is famous as the early home of Napoleon 
Bonaparte, avIio was born there in the town of Ajaccio, in 1769. 

Review Topics.—Area of France. Siuface. Eivers. Climate. Produc¬ 
tions of Southern France. Of Central. Northern. Occupations. Rankinmanu- 
facture.s. Foreign commerce. Domestic. Canals. Railways. Government and 
religion. People. Describe Paris. Use of French language in Europe. Manu¬ 
factures. Versailles. Lyon. Marseille. Bordeaux. Lille. Toulouse. Rouen. 
St. Etienne. Strasbourg. Cherbourg. Brest. Toulon. Amiens. Reims. 
Bayonne. Nantes. Colonial po.s.sessions. 



Docks at Marseille. The tide gives no trouble in the Mediterranean. Compare with the docks 
at Liverpool and other cities. 

cotton mills. St, Etienne is in the midst of coal mines. It is 
noted for its firearms, and contains the largest ribbon factories 
in the world. 





















SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 


121 






The United States buys a large amount of the cork and 
fruit, and sells to Spain a small amount of cotton, to¬ 
bacco, lumber, and oil. 

The forests yield large supplies of cork, the bark of the 
cork-oak. 

This tree is peculiar to the Mediterranean countries. 

6. Cities. — All the 
principal cities are con¬ 
nected by railroads. 

Many of these intersect 
at Madrid, which is the 
capital and largest city. 

It is celebrated for its 
palace, museums, and 
university. It is im¬ 
portant only as a place 
of residence and as the 

seat of the court. a grove of olive trees. 


UTIII. SPAIN, PORTUGAU, AND ITALY. 

1. These countries lie mainly between the same parallels of 
latitude. They have similar climates and productions, and 
therefore similar pursuits. 

2. Spain and Portugal. —Spain and Portugal occupy the 
Spanish Peninsula. This peninsula consists of a high central 
plateau, traversed by several parallel mountain chains. 

As rain is shut out by high mountains along the coast, parts of the 
plateau are so dry that agriculture depends upon irrigation, which 
has been practiced for many centuries. 

Some of the mountain peaks are high e7iough to be always covered 
with snow. 

3. The Inhabitants have dark complexions, with black hair 
and eyes, quite different from the flaxen-haired, blue-eyed Ger¬ 
mans of the north of Europe. 

Like the Italians, and all other people who hve in mild climates 
and under bright skies, they are lively and gay, inclined to outdoor 
amusements, fond of bright colors, and much given to music and 

dancing. 


4. The Gov¬ 
ernment of 
Spain is mo¬ 
narchical. Por¬ 
tugal is a repub¬ 
lic. The Roman 
Catholic is the 
established re¬ 
ligion in botli 
countries. 

5. Spain is 

rich in minerals, especially in quicksilver, copper, iron, coal, lead, 
and salt. 

The richest quicksilver mines in the world are at Almaden. Bilbao 
exports more iron ore than any other European port. 

The principal agricultural products are grain, esparto, flax, 
olives, grapes, and other fruits. 

The chief exports are ores and metals, wine, oranges, 
olive oil, cork, raisins, nuts, and grapes. 


An orange grove near Valencia, Spain. The oranges are sold by weight. 
The buyer is standing by the scales. 


10. Italy. —Italy, the seat of the ancient Roman Empire, 
occupies a peninsula in Southern Europe which, except on the 
north, is surrounded by the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas. 


It is famous for its bright skies and beautiful scenery, its fruits, its 
magnificent public buildings, picture galleries, and works of art. 


Besides the peninsula, Italy comprises Sicily, Sardinia, and 
other less important islands. 


The river Tagus at Toledo. The old bridge was 
The barren soil shows the effect of the dry 
[Copyright by Am. Stereoscopic Co.] 


Barcelona is the 
next in size and 
the chief commer¬ 
cial city. 

Valenciaisfamous 
for its oranges. 
Seville manufac¬ 
tures cigars and 
is famous for its 
Moorish antiqui¬ 
ties and collections 
of paintings. 
Malaga exports 
grapes, raisins, 
and wines. Palos 
is celebrated as the 
place from which 
Columbus sailed 
to America on his 
oors first voyage of dis¬ 
covery. 

In Granada is the great Moorish palace called the Alhambra. It is 
the finest specimen of Arabesque architecture in Europe. 

7. Gibraltar is a celebrated fortress situated on a rocky prom¬ 
ontory. It commands the passage between the Mediterranean 
and the Atlantic. It is 
a free port and belongs 
to England. 

8. The Andorra Re¬ 
public has an ai’ea of 
175 square miles and a 
population of 0,000. 

It received its independ¬ 
ence as a gift from 
Charlemagne in re¬ 
turn for the services 
which it rendei-ed to his empire in repelling the Moors wlien they 
attempted to cross the Pyrenees. 

9. Portugal. —Portugal occupies the western portion of the 
Peninsula, and its physical features are similar to those of Spain. 

So, also, are its products and 
commerce. 

It yields a larger supply of cork 
than any other country. 

Lisbon is the capital and 
principal commercial city. It 
was the scene of a fearful earth¬ 
quake in 1755. Oporto is 
chiefly known for its port wine. 

olives when ripe are crushed in th is mill. The 

oil is afterward pressed oul of them. Colonial POSSeSSions of 

Spain are the Canary Islands and certain islands and parts of the west 
and north African coast; of Portugal, the Azores, Madeira, Cape Verde 
Islands, parts of Africa, and some small possessions in Asia and Oceania. 


Cutting cork bark. This does not kill the tree, since new 
bark forms over the peeled places. 

























122 


ITALY. 




Northern Italy consists chiefly of a vast plain ; the rest of the 
peninsula is traversed throughout its length by the Apennines 
as a sort of a backbone. Its lakes are extremely picturesque. 

Southern and insular Italy contains the celebrated volcanoes of 
Vesuvius, Etna, and Stroinboli. 

Italy is connected with Central Euro 2 )e by fine roads throug-h the 
mountain passes, and by railroads which go through tuiinel.s. The 
most famous passes are the great St. Bernard, the St. Gothard, the 
Mt. Cenis, and the Simi)lon. Undei’ the three latter are railroad 
tunnels. Without these I’oads Italy could not carry on its large 
trade with Northern Eurojie. 

11. Productions and Pursuits.—Wheat, corn, rice, grapes, 
olives, oranges, lemons, and tigs are extensively grown. 

liOinbardy, as the valley of the Po is often called, is irrigated, and 
its meadows may be mowed six times in a year. It is noted for the 
produce of its dairies, and the extent of its rice fields and mulberry 
groves. The mulberry leaf is the food of the silkworm. Italy pro¬ 
duces more raw silk than any other country of Europe. The yield 
is not far from ten million pounds per annum. 

The sulphur of Sicily, the marble of Carrara, iron, and borax are the 
principal miner¬ 
al irroductions. 


The chief occu¬ 
pation of the peo¬ 
ple is agriculture, 
and in nortliern 
Italy they are also 
largely engaged in 
manufacturing. 


The fisheries, in¬ 
cluding those of The harbor of Genoa. 

sponges and coral, employ as many as 20,000 vessels and boats, and 
64,000 men. 


The principal exports are raw silks and velvets, olive oil, Avine, 
and fruits, sulphur, marble, and macaroni. Leading imports are 
grain, raw cotton, coal, lumber, and hides. 

Italy sells to the United States raw silk, fruits and nuts, and olive 
oil, and buys from us tobacco, wheat, coal, and kerosene. 

12. Government.—The government is a constitutional mon¬ 
archy. The established religion is the Roman Catholic; other 
religions, however, are tolerated. Public education is compulsory. 

13. Cities.— Koine is the capital of Italy, and the residence 
of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. 


.4 bird’s-eye view of Venice, showing the Alps in the distance and the city built on the islands of 
the Adriatic. The Grand Catial passes through thecity^and many other canals which serve for 
streets run in every direction. 

Naples is the largest city of Italy. It is noted for its beautiful 
bay, and for its manufactures of silk. 

Near it stood the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (see page 15). 
Great quantities of coral are obtained in the sea near Naples, and are 
manufactured into jewelry in the city. 

Venice occupies seventy-two small islands, connected by 
bridges. Canals take the ])lace of streets. They are navigated 
in boats called gondolas. 

3liian, the chief city of Lombardy, is the center of the silk 

trade, and noted for its 
manufactures and its beau¬ 
tiful cathedral built of 
white marble. 

Turin is celebrated for 
its beautiful situation and 
appearance, its museum 
and cathedral, and its 
manufactures of cotton, 
linen, and silk. 

Florence, one of the most 
beautiful and healthful 
cities of Italy, is rich in 
its works of art. Pa¬ 
lermo, the largest city in 
Sicily, is a great fruit 
market. Genoa, famous 
as the birthplace of Colum¬ 
bus, is the leading seaport 

of Italy. It manufactures the finest of silks and velvets. 






Its ruins, its churches, its art galleries and museums, its traditions and 
associations, make it the most famous city in the world. It is con¬ 
tinually crowded with students and tourists. 


14. Recent Territorial Changes.—At the close of the World 
War, Austria ceded to Italy the Trentino, a district on the south- 



View on the river Tiber at Rome. St. Peter’s in the distance. 


eru slope of the Alps, and the peninsula of Istria, which includes 
Trieste, the principal port on the Adriatic Sea. 

The seaport of Flume lies at the head of the Adriatic Sea and be¬ 
longs to Italy. This port provides for Yugoslavia its chief outlet 
to the sea. 

Review Topics.— How are Spain, Portugal, and Italy alike ? The Spanish 
Peninsula. Inhabitants. Government. Religion. Productions. Exports. What 
is cork ? Chief cities. The Alhambra. Gibraltar. Andorra. Portugal. Its 
products and exports. Cork. Cities. For what is Italy famous ? It comprises 
what ? Northern Italy. The Apennines. Volcanoes. Alpine passes. Agricul¬ 
tural products. Lombardy. Raw silk. Minerals. Chief occupation. Manu¬ 
factures. Fisheries. Exports. Government. Religion. What is said of Rome ? 
Naples ? Venice ? Genoa ? Trieste ? Other cities ? San Marino ? What is 
said of Fiume? Name the colonial possessions of Spain and Portugal. 

























THE NETHERLANDS. 


12 a 




LIX. NETHERLANDS, BELGIUM, AND DENMARK. 


Delft, showing the sea wall, the canal, and the water beyond. The buildings are oil refineries. 

1. The Netherlands. —The Netherlands (low countries), com¬ 
monly called Holland (holtland or woodland), is a great delta, 
largely built up by the deposits of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, 
which here enter the sea through many channels. About one- 
third of it has been reclaimed from the sea by building embank¬ 
ments around areas of shallow water, and pumping out the water. 
Such areas, called polders, are below sea level, and constant pump¬ 
ing is necessary to drain off the rainfall. 

This is done partly by steam pumps and 
partly by windmills. 

The country is intersected by a network of 
rivers and canals, which drain the land 
and serve as waterways, while their 
banks form convenient routes for wagon 
roads and railroads. One can go almost 


Amsterdam, on the Zuider Zee, is the largest and most important 
city. Its diamond polishers are the most celebrated in the world. 

Rotterdam is next to Amsterdam in size. It is the chief port 
of the country and is one of the important seaports of the world. 
A ship canal connects it with the sea. Utrecht, Haarlem, and 
Leyden are important towns. Edam and Alkmaar are noted 
for their cheese. 

Delft manufactures fine pottery, and is a great cheese and 
butter market. 

Holland has no coal, iron, or other metals. What effect does this have 
on her industries? Building materials and timber are also lack¬ 
ing. Brick, 
tile, and earth¬ 
enware are 
made in abun¬ 
dance. But¬ 
ter, cheese, 
meat, and oleo¬ 
margarine are 
leading ex- 


Cheese-making in Holland. 1 . The interior of a dairy. 

immense dikes of timber and stone are maintained to protect the land 


2 . Pressing the Cheese. 

anywhere by water 
or land. The 
farmer may bring 
home hay from his 
meadow in a boat. 

Many families find 
permanent homes 
in house boats. 

Along the coast 


3 . The cheese market at Alkmaar, 

ports. Besides jewelry and diamonds, we buy 
from Holland tobacco, tin, fish, hides, and 
cheese. She obtains the tobacco and tin 
from her colonial possessions. We sell to 
her flour, cotton, meats, and naval stores. 
The colonial posses-sioiis of the Netherlands 
contain a population numbering about 30,000,- 
000 people, or more than seven times as large 
as that of Holland. They embrace many of 
the most important of the East India Islands, several of the 
West Indies, and Dutch Guiana'. The most valuable of all is 
Java, so famed for its coffee. The little islands of Banca and 
Billiton, in the East Indies, supply much of the best tin in the world. 


The Dutch control the mouth of the Rhine, and through it 
much of the trade of the Rhine countries. They have grown rich 
as distributors of various products from their own colonies to the 
countries of northern Europe and to America. 


from the sea. 

The Dutch are a sober, provident, and thrifty people. Their 
chief industries are agriculture, commerce, and manufactures 

The country is a sort of dairy farm, from which England obtains sup¬ 
plies of meat, butter, and cheese. It is also famed for its linen. 

The Dutch are fine sailors, and are extensively engaged in sea fish¬ 
eries and commerce. 

The herring and oyster fisheries in the North Sea are a source of 
great wealth. The Dutch herrings are known all over the world. 

The government is a constitutional monarchy. The States- 
General is the legislative body. It corresponds to our Congress. 
The people are mostly Protestants, but all religions are tolerated, 
and Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Jews alike receive aid 



Rotterdam, showing a canal lined with boats that bring produce to market. 


from the public funds. 

2. Cities. — The Hague is the seat of government. It is famed 
for its museum. 


3. Luxemburg was once a part of the Netherlands, but is 
now an independent Grand Duchy. The people generally speak 
German, and are engaged in agriculture and iron mining. 




































124 


BELGIUM AND DENMAKK. 





4. Belgium is one of the most densely populated countries of 
the world. In tlie south the people resemble the French in speecli 


Stacks of flax along the river Lys, and men engaged in rotting, or soaking, it to loosen the fiber from 
the woody part. The water of the Lys is exactly su’ted to this wo k, which is a leading industrx/ 
of this part of Belgium. [Copyright by Underwood & Underwood.] 

and customs, while in the north they are like the Dutch. 

The northern section lies in the lowlands and resembles Holland. 
The southern part resembles northern France. 

Belgium is rich in forests and minerals, and is noted 
for the extent and variety of its manufactures. It is 
one of Europe’s greatest coal and iron producers. The 
soil is fertile and is carefully cultivated. 

Belgium manufactures more goods in proportion to its 
population than any other country. Its leading manu¬ 
factures are woolen goods, linens, and laces. In the coal 
region ii'on and steel manufactures are leading prod¬ 
ucts. The linen in¬ 
dustry is carried on 
along the river Lys, 
and Brussels and 
Mechlin laces are sold 
ev^ery where. Brussels 
carpets wei’e first 
made here. 

The government is 
a constitutional mon¬ 
archy. The majority 
of the people are Ro¬ 
man Catholics. Full 


land, together with several islands near the entrance of the Baltic 
Sea. 

The coasts are low and shelving. The western shore of Jutland is so 
dangerous that it is called by sailors the “ iron coast."’ The eastern 
coast is less inhospitable, and has several excellent harbors. There 
are numerous bays or fiords which reach far into the land. 

The “Sound,” a strait only three miles wide, separates Denmark from 
Sweden. It is the natural highway for vessels bound to the Baltic. 
Many buoys and lighthouses, maintained by the Danish Govern¬ 
ment, are required to render its navigation safe. The Kiel Canal, 
which connects the Baltic and the North Sea, now enables vessels 
to avoid the passage of the Sound. 

7. The peninsular form of Denmark renders the climate moist, 
even, and mild. The inhabitants are chiefly devoted to agri¬ 
culture, stock-raising, fishing, and shipbuilding. 

Produc- ' . I L I ^ tions and Trade.— 

Denmark IV' ■ 'A produces and exports 

mainlymilk, ^ |V .^ butter, and cheese. 

Beef, cattle, wcy ^Horses, wool, and 

eggs, also, are sold. 
Our imports from 
Den m ark consist 
chiefly of hides, wool, 
and rennet, a sub¬ 
stance used in cheese 
making. We sell 
to Denmark oil¬ 
cake, grain, fiou r, 

cotton, and kerosene. 
Charging the metal cartridges. The machine -ipi , v . ^ , 

puts in the cap, nuasurts the povder, and ^ iOUT, DG6i SUgar, ai)(l 
fastens the ball in the shell. liquors arc made, and 

Copenhagen builds shij)s out of Norwaj- lumber. The 
most careful attention is given to butter making. There 
are over one thousand steam factories, where it is packed 
and salted to meet the demands of all markets. Enor¬ 
mous quantities are exported. 

The government is a limited monarchy; the re- 
2 . Making gun barrels. .4 solid bar of Lutheran; educQtion is nearly 

metal fs heated and hammered until it 
tempered and in shape. It is afterward 

bored out. This is a steam trip hammer ^ , ji • ^ j ry i i • 

used to forge the metal. Copenhagen, Oh the island of Zealand, is the 


liberty is granted 


Manufacturing firearms in Liege. \. Polish¬ 
ing gun stocks. 


religious 
to all. 


Trade. —Belgium has an enormous foreign commerce for so small a 
country. Her exports are coal and coke, textiles of every sort, beet 
sugar, glass, machinery, diamonds, and a large variety of manu¬ 
factures. She imports raw materials and foods, lumber, metals, 
kerosene, and coffee. 

She but's our food products, naval stores, raw cotton and 
petroleum. She sells us linens, laces, dress trimming, diamonds, 
and fine gun barrels. 

6. Cities.—Briis.sels, the capital, on the Senne, is for its beauty 
a second Paris. It is widely known for its lace. Near Brussels 
is the field of W aterloo, where Napoleon was defeated. Antwerp 
is one of the chief commercial ports of Europe. 

Ghent is extensivelj^ engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods. 
Liege, near the coal fields, is noted for the manufacture of iron and 
steel wares and firearms. 

The foreign possessions consist of the Belgian Congo, in central Af¬ 
rica, having a population of about 8,500,000 natives. It comprises 
nearly the whole basin of the Congo River, and produces rubber, palm 
oil, cocoa, copper, and ivory. 

G. Denmark.—Denmark consists of the low peninsula of Jut- 


capital, and the only large toAvn in the kingdom. 

The colonial possessions of Denmark are Greenland and the Faroe 
Islands. 

The Faroe Is¬ 
lands (popula- 
tiou21,000jare 
volcanic in ori¬ 
gin. Sheep 
farming is 
profitable, 
and barley is 
raised there. 

Iceland is an 
independent 
state, united to 
Denmark by 
having the 
same king. 

Review Topics. —Describe the Netherlands. Describe the Dutch. Their 
industries. Navy. Government. Religion. The Hague. Amsterdam. Rot¬ 
terdam. Colonial possessions. Luxemburg. Describe Belgium. Its resources 
and manufactures; Government. Religion. Brussels. Waterloo. Antwerp. 
Ghent. Liege. Ostend. Bruges. Of what does Denmark consist? Its coasts 
Climate. Industries. Exports. Government. Describe Copenhagen. Colonial 
possessions. Faroe Islands. 


The market place at Copenhagen^ 





























to 












































































































































































126 


GERMANY. 





LX. GERMANY. 




The German plateau.—The valley of the river Stein at Munster. 

1. Germany is a federal republic, consisting of eighteen states. 

2. Area and Population. —Germany is about five-sixths as 
large as France, but it is much more densely populated. The 
state of Saxony is the most densely populated part of Europe. 
The state of Prussia is about three times as large, both in area 
and population, as the other seventeen states together. 

3. Surface. — North Germany occupies a portion of the great 
plain of Europe. South of this plain is the cen¬ 
tral plateau, which, in the western half of the 
empire, extends to the Alps. It is a part of tlie 
same worn-down mountain region that borders 
the plain in 
France, and ex¬ 
tends eastward 
through Czecho¬ 
slovakia. Rivers 
have cut deep 
valleys in this 
plateau, and low 
mountain ranges 
rise above it. 


The woolens of Saxony, the Rhine wines of Prussia, the china 
of Dresden, the dolls of Sonneberg, the toys of Nuremberg, and 
the iron and steel products of Essen, beside many chemicals 
and dyes, are prominent among the manufactures. 

IMucli sugar is manufacture<l from beets and many million dol¬ 
lars’ worth of sugar is exported annually from Germany. 

5. Occupations. —Eight millions of the population are en¬ 
gaged in tilling the soil. Manufacturing, wool-growing, and 
mining are also leading pursuits. 

To promote trade, great commercial fairs are held. Those of Leip- 
sic are the most famous. 

— Before the World War, Germany had a large and rapidly 
growing commerce with all parts of the world. In value this 
trade was next to that of the United Kingdom. Her great exports 
were iron and steel goods, cottons, woolens, and silks, beet sugar, 
machinery, clothing, hides, leather, and chemicals. Her imports 
were mamly raw materials for use in her varied industries, and 
food products. 

Transportation. —A splendid network of railroads serves the 
country, con- necting all parts 

of the nation i linking it with 

the adjacent ^ countries. Many 

of the rivers are 
dredged to carry 
traffic, and Canals 
connect the Rhine 
with the Danube, 
the Marne and the 
Rhone. The Elbe, 
the. Weser, and the 
Oder are all navi¬ 
gable and are con¬ 
nected by canals. 


3. The china is next painted and decorated^ 
and again placed in the oven and heated until 
the coating which has been placed on it becomes 
enamel. 


2. The clay pieces are placed in ovens where 
the great heat changes the clay into china. 


Making Dresden china at Meissen. 
1. Molding dishes from clay. 


the most noted 
It is famous for 


The Rhine is 
of these rivers. 

its scenery. All the important rivers in Germany, except the 
Danube, flow northward. There are many lakes in the northern 
part of the great plain. IMost of them are quite small. 

4. Products. —Coal, iron, zinc, silver, lead, copper, and salt 
are found throughout the plateau region. Germany is the chief 
source of supply of potassium salts, which are extensively used in 
the manufacture of fertilizers. 


6. The people. 
—The Germans 
are thrifty and ingenious, and have produced 
many works on the ancient languages, on chem¬ 
istry, and philosophy. They are noted for their 
love of music, and some of the great composers have been Germans. 

The Schools.— The Germans give much attention to education, and 
the law requires that every child must go to school. This system 
was adopted many years ago, and the German public schools and 
universities have done ninch for the advancement of education. 

7. Cities. — Berlin, the capital, is one of the largest cities 
of Europe. It has a large university, museums, and public 
buildings. 


’The agricultural products are varied. The grains and sugar- 
beet are raised in great abundance; flax grows in all parts of the 
empire; tobacco and grapes flourish in the warm river valleys. 

Forests- cover one-fourth of the country. They are under govern-, 
ment care. 

The mountains of Germany are covered with forests, and this is shown 
by the names which the Germans have often given their mountains. 
The Black Forest (German, Scliwartzwald), east of the Rhine, which 
is so famous in German stories, is the name of a mountain region 
nearly 5,000 feet high. 

The manufactured products include nearly all articles that 
a country needs, and Germany ranks among the great manufactur¬ 
ing nations. 



** Unter den l/indenf* a street in Berlin. 





























GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 


127 



Public square in the old city of Nuremberg. 


Hamburg-, on the Elbe, is the chief seaport and the second 
■city in population of Germany. 

Hamburg’s growth is due to the development of the manufactures 
and industrial interests of Germany. Bremen, on the Weser, 
ranKS second as a seaport. Its harbor is Bremerhaven. 

Dresden, the capital of Saxony, has art galleries, schools of 
anusic, libraries, and potteries. 

The Dresden china is made at Meissen. Chem¬ 
nitz, nearby, manufactures cotton and woolens, 
hosiery, and knitted goods. 

Munich, the capital of Bavaria, has many 
museums and galleries of art. Nuremberg-, 
also in Bavaria, is a market for hops and 
toys. 

Breslau is the great wool and linen market of 
the empire, and the center of an extensive trade. 

Leipsic and Stuttgart, the capital of Wiirttem- 
berg, have printing estal)lishments, and Leipsic 
is known for the number and cheapness of its 
publications and for its university. 

Cologne has a large cathedral, and manufactures 
wine and perfumery. It is the most populous 
city of Prussia on the Rhine. Elirenbreitstein 
was one of the strongest Prussian citadels. 

:Stettin is an important seaport near the Baltic Sea, 
and has the largest shipyards in Germany. 

-Frankfort-on-tbe-Main is a financial center and depot of inland trade. 

Review Topics.— what does Germany include ? Area. Population. Sur¬ 
face of Germany. Mineral resources. Agricultural. Manufactures. Occupa¬ 
tions. Transportation. Government. The people. Schools. Describe Hamburg. 
What of Berlin ? Dresden ? Munich ? Breslau ? Leipsic ? Cologne ? Stettin ? 
Frankfort ? 



An ocean steamship in dry dock at the Vulcan yards, Stettin. 


LXI. SWITZERLAND, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, AUSTRIA, 
AND HUNGARY. 

1. Switzerland. —The Republic of Switzerland consists of 22 
separate “ Cantons,” or States, which are as distinct from each 
other as the States of our Union. The general affairs of the Re¬ 
public are managed by a Congress somewhat like our own. 

Switzerland is the most mountainous country in Europe, and 
is world-renowned for its magnificent scenery. 

It is largely bounded and traversed by the Alps. Mont Cervin, or 
“ The Matterhorn,” rivals Mont Blanc in grandeur, and the Jung¬ 
frau is exceedingly beautiful. The Alps are lofty, yet easily 
accessible, and their scenery and invigorating air make Switzer¬ 
land “ the playground of Europe,” visited by millions of tourists. 

Many of the peaks are covered with perpetual snow, while hundreds 
of the valleys are filled with glaciers, or ice rivers. From certain 
of these the Rhine and the Rhone take their origin. Many of the 
waterfalls are famed for their beauty. 

The Swiss lakes are unrivaled for beauty. Those of Geneva, Con¬ 
stance, and Lucerne are very celebrated. 


Owing to the mountainous character of their country, which is 
better adapted to grazing than tillage, the Swiss do not produce 
breadstuff’s enough for their own use, but import grains in large 
quantities and raw products for manufacture, such as cotton, silk, 
minerals, and coal. Waterfalls are used to generate electricity 
for turning mill-wheels. 

They are famed for their watches, cotton and silk goods, and musical 
boxes. These, with condensed milk, cheese, and toys, are the 
chief exports. One-third of the people are engaged in manufac¬ 
turing. The Swiss maintain technical schools to train workmen 
for their factories. Besides textiles, we import cheese, clocks and 
watches, aniline dyes, and rennet from Switzerland, and sell her 
raw cotton, iron and steel goods, and chemicals. Swiss trade is 
mainly with her neighbors, France, Germany, and Italy. 

3. Cities. — Bern is the seat of the general government of 
the Swiss republic. Geneva is famed for its manufactures and 
its beautiful situation. Zurich and Basel are noted for their 
silks; Lucerne, for the magnificent scenery near it of mountains 
and lake. Interlaken, in a high mountain valley, faces the Jung¬ 
frau, and is a favorite summer resort. 


2. The People and Their Occupations. —The Swiss are in¬ 
dustrious and liberty-loving. The majority are 


Interlaken, with the Jungfrau in the distance. 

Their chief industries are cattle-raising, 
dairy-farming, and manufacturing. 


Protestants. Education is free and compulsory. 




Climbing a high peak in the Alps. 





























128 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA, AUSTRIA, AND HUNGARY. 





^ ' ir.(ci(nn<a» 
mcmmRinnJTTTn 


Vienna. — Franzen’s Ring, the finest street in Europe.—The parliament house and cathedral. 

4. Czechoslovakia.—The richest provinces of the former 
Austro-Hungarian empire have united to form the Republic of 
Czechoslovakia. It consists of the basin of Bohemia, almost in¬ 
closed by low mountains, the plateau of iNIoravia, and Slovakia 
in the western ranges of the Carpathian Mountains. 

5. People and Industries.—The Czechs and 
the Slovaks are two very closely related branches 
of the Slavic race, and the Slovaks speak a dialect 
of the Czech language. Tliere are about twice as 
many Czechs as 


Slovaks in the 
country. The 
Czechs are intelli¬ 
gent and enter¬ 
prising. The Slo¬ 
vaks, in the moun¬ 
tains in the eastern 
part of the coun¬ 
try, are mostly 
humble herdsmen. 


In the Austrian Alps^ mines of salt, iron, lignite, and lead have beea 
worked for centuries. But Austria is not now very rich in min¬ 
erals. 

8. Vienna, the capital, is the only large city in Austria. It 
stands at the crossing of great trade routes, the waterway of the- 
Danube and railroad lines between the Adriatic and the Oder 
River. Formerly the city had many flourishing industries, famous 
institutions, and magnificent buildings. 

"While it was the capital of the great Austro-Hungarian empire it 
became one of the largest and finest cities in Europe. Now, as the 
capital and center of only a small country, it seems destined to- 
lose in population and in imjiortance. 

9. Hungary. —The Republic of Hungary occupies an almost, 
treeless plain, surrounded by mountains. It is, in some parts, too- 
dry for general farming, but it produces large crops of wheat,. 


corn, rye, bar- 
grapes. IMany 
sheep are 
The people 




ley, tobacco, and. 
horses, cattle, and 
raised. 

of Hungary are- 
called Magyars^, 
and they are the 
descendants of 
Asiatic invaders, 
who came up the 
Danube many hun¬ 
dreds of years ago. 

10. Budapest, 
the capital of Hun¬ 
gary, is located on both sides of the Danube. It 
is a large and well-built city, and is noted for- 


3. Glass vessels are pressed into shape and then 
cut on a revolving stone, as shown in the picture. 


nitiny Grenutins in Glass making, a famous Bohemian industry, thc citieS. 

1. The sand and other materials are melted in a 

Nearly all the peo- furnace. The workman then gathers a ball of p|0 are able 
^ glass on the end of a tube and blows it into a globe, 

tinrl -rovifp- as shown in the cut. Another workman attaches rjlOSt of those 

reaa ana wiite, iuu&l ui muse 

who cannot are drawn and roliu into a cylinder, Slovaks. 

Bohemia and Moravia, the home of the Czechs, have abundant agri¬ 
cultural and mineral resources, and form one of the most densely 
populated regions of Europe. About an equal number of people 
are engaged m agriculture and manufacturing. 

Grain, potatoes, sugar beets, orchard fruits, and hops are extensively 
grown. Mines of coal, iron, and other minerals supply material for 
great industries in textiles, machinery, porcelain, glass, sugar, 
paper, and chemicals. Bohemia is famed for its colored glassware. 

6. Prague, the capital, on the Moldau River, has water com¬ 
munication through the Elbe with Germany, and thus has a route 
to the North Sea. It contains one of the oldest universities in 
Europe. 

Prague was the birthplace of John Huss, a famous preacher of the 
Protestant Reformation, and of Kepler, the great astronomer. 

7. Austria. —The German Austrian Republic occupies the east¬ 
ern ranges of the Alps and a part of the valley of the upper Dan¬ 
ube. It is about twice as large as Switzerland, which it resembles 
in surface, resources, and industries. 


2. The ends of the cylinder are cracked off, and itS floUl’ mills. 
it is cut open with a diamond from end to end. 

It is then placed in a furnace on a flat surface 

and the heat causes it to open and flatten out, Kcvicw Topics. — Switzerland. Government. Surface. 

Area. Population. Glaciers. Lakes. Scenery. Tourists. 
People. Industries. Water power. Exports. Cities. Czechoslovakia. Divisions. 
Surface. People. Language. Agricultme. Manufacturing. Mining. Prague. 
Austria. Size. Surface. Industries. Minerals. Vienna. Hungary. Surface. 
Products. Resources. People. Budapest. 


forming a pane of glass. 

There are 


One of the large bridges across the Danube, connecting Buda and Pest, which together form Budapest, 
the capital of Hungary* 































NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND FINLAND. 


129 


liXII. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND FINLAND. 

1 . Scandinavia. —Tlie mountainous peninsula of Scandinavia 
is occupied by the two countries, Norway and Sweden. They 
were united under one king in 1814, but became again separate 
kingdoms in 1905. 

Education receives great attention in both countries, 
instruction is free, excellent, and compulsory, 

Norwegians are Lutherans in religion. 

2. Norway.— The surface of Norway is 
a rugged plateau, covered in part with snow 
fields, from which glaciers descend the valleys 
toward the sea. The west winds from the 
Atlantic bring abundant rainfall and a cli¬ 
mate so mild that the harbors are never closed 
by ice, even far north of the Arctic Circle. 

On the coast, the edge of the plateau is broken 
by hundreds of fiords or long, narrow 
gorges, which extend into the land many 
miles. The precipitous walls of the great 
fiords are thousands of feet high, and the 
water in them is thousands of feet deep. 

In the northern part of Norway, during sev¬ 
eral weeks in the summer, the sun does not set at all. The grand 
scenery of the fiords attracts thousands of visitors, many of whom 
go to the North Cape to see the midnight sun. 

Only a small portion of the surface of Norway can be cultivated, 
and farming is limited and difficult. Three-fourths of the land is 
unproductive. ]\Iost of the remainder is occupied by forests of 
pine, which furnish timber for shipbuilding to a large part of 
Western Europe. There are mines of copper, iron, silver, and 
nickel. Norway has, probably, greater available water power than 
any other European country. The principal exports are fish, 
timber, and paper. 

The people are hardy and industrious, and naturally take to the 
sea for oceupation. They are excellent sailors and fishermen. 

Christiania, 
the capital, is 
beautifully sit¬ 
uated at the 
northern end of 
a long fiord, and 
has a splendid 
harbor. It is 
eonnected by 
rail with Bergen 
andTrondhjein, 
the principal 
ports on the 
west coast. 

They are the centers of the fishing industry and tourist traffic. 

3. Sweden lies on the eastern slope of the Kiolen mountains, 
and its surface is lower and smoother than that of Norway. Its 
climate is more severe and its rainfall much less. It is notable 
for the number of parallel valleys, each containing a long, narrow 
lake, and drained by a river flowing to the Baltic Sea. 


Southern Sweden forms a peninsula by itself. It is a hilly and 
partly wooded plateau, separated from the mountains by a de¬ 
pression, which contains several large lakes. This peninsula is 
the most productive and densely populated part of the country. 

About half of Sweden is covered with forest, but there is a 
much larger area under cultivation than in Norway. Swedish 
iron ore is among the best in the world and is shipped to England 
and the United States. Some of the richest 
mines are north of the Arctic Circle. The 
principal exports are iron ore, timber, wood 
pulp, matches, and butter. 

Stockliolin, on Lake Malar, is the capital, 
and one of the most picturesque cities in 
Europe. It is connected by lakes and canals 
with Goteborg, on the Cattegat, the first 
commercial port of the country. 

4. Finland, the “land of ten thousand 
lakes,” occupies a region of rounded, rocky 
hills and hollows, similar to the Laurentian 
Highland of Canada. It extends from the 
Gulf of Finland to the Arctic Ocean, and is 
separated from Sweden by the Gulf of Bothnia. 

The country is sparsely inhabited. The Finns belong to the 
yellow race, though their ancestors have lived for a long time in 
Finland. They have recently been freed from Russian domina¬ 
tion, and have now established an independent and enlightened 
republic. They are well educated and progressive Lutherans. 

Internal communication is largely by water, as much of the surface 
of Finland is covered with a network of lakes and connecting 
streams. The available water power is very great and is utilized 
by textile and timber industries. The chief exports are timber, 
paper, and wood pulp. 

Helsingfors, the capital, is located on the Gulf of Finland. It 
is the seat of a venerable university. 

6. Lapland, a region of Norway, Sweden, and Finland, lying 
within the Arctic Circle, is inhabited by the Lapps, who resemble 
the American 
Eskimos. They 
depend on large 
herds of rein¬ 
deer for food, 
clothing, and 
transportation. 

Review Top¬ 
ics. — Scandinavia. 

Boundaries. Sur¬ 
face. Coast. Re¬ 
ligion. Education. 

Norway. Climate. 

Mountains. Gla¬ 
ciers. Fiords. Harbors. Farms. Forests. Fisheries. Mines. Water power. 
Visitors. Christiania. Trondhjem. Bergen. Sweden. Slope. Drainage. South¬ 
ern peninsula. Lakes. Iron mines. Stockholm. Goteborg. Finland. Bound¬ 
aries. Surface. Waterways. People. Government. Helsingfors. Lapland. 
Location. People. Reindeer. 


Public 
The Swedes and 



One of the fiords or bays which are very numerous along the 
coast of Norway. These are formed by the sinking of the coast, 
which allows the waters of the ocean to flow up the narrow 
valleys. 



Packing fish in Norway. 
[Oop>Tight, Am. Stereo. Co.) 



A mountain farm in Norway. Notice the glacier on the right far up on 
the mountains. 






















130 


RUSSIA. 





LXIII. RUSSIA, POLAND, AND THE BALTIC STATES. 

1. Russia. —Russia is one of the largest countries in the 
world. It includes the eastern part of Europe and the whole 
of Northern Asia, and has a population of many different races.. 

Great Britain, Russia, and the United States exercise dominion over 
nearly one-half of the land surface of the earth, and over more than 
two-hfths of its inhabitants. The English possessions lie chiefly 
in warm climates, the American in temperate, the Russian in cold. 

2. Russia in Europe is, for the most part, a level country, 
occupying a large part of the “ Great Plain ” of the continent, 
and has a population of about 93,000,000. 

3. The principal rivers are the Volga, the longest in Europe, 
the Ural, Dnieper, Don, Dwina, Kama, and Pechora. 

The slope of the plain is so gentle that the rivers are shallow and 
crooked; yet they are used for transportation more extensively 
than in any other European country. 

4. Climate. —Because Russia is so far from the ocean and has 
no mountains to break the cold north winds, it has a climate of 
great extremes, hot summers and cold winters. 

The harbor of Archangel is closed by ice for six months every 
year, and the mouth of the Volga is closed for half that time. 
The rainfall is greatest in the western 
part, decreasing toward the east and 
southeast, where the steppes are too dry 
for agriculture. 

6. Resources. —Russia is rich in plati¬ 
num,iron,gold,coal,copper,and zinc. The 
opening of coal and iron mines has greatly 
aided her manufacturing industries. 

The Black Lands, or fertile prairies of 
the central and southern plain, yield large 


crops of rye, wheat, oats, and barley, hemp 
and flax. This part of Russia is one of the great granaries of Europe. 

The grassy steppes, or treeless plains, sustain immense num¬ 
bers of sheep, horses, and cattle, and the vast forests of the north 
abound in fur-bearing animals. JNIore wool is produced than in 
any other country of Europe. 

6. Pursuits.—Agriculture, lumbering, mining, and manufac¬ 
turing are the chief pursuits. 

A large inland trade with other parts of Europe and Asia is 
carried on by means of fairs, which are held at various places. 


Russian peasants making hay in the northern part of the Central Plain. 
Notice the pine forests which characterize that section. 


Nizhni-Novgorod, on the Volga. Beyond the bridge of boats are long rows of white .buildings where 
goods are sold during the fair. On the river are many ships, canal boats, and barges which come from 
different parts of Russia. [Copyright, Underwood & Underwood.] 


Moscow, the capital of Russia, in the center of the Great Plain, showing the Kremlin and the river 
Moskva, which is used as a canal. 

The largest fair in the world is that held at Nizlmi-Novgorod. IVIer- 
chauts from China, Mongolia, India, Afghanistan, Persia, Turkey, 
and all parts of Europe attend this fair. The annual concourse 
numbers more than 200,000 merchants. The importance of fairs 
is diminishing with the improvement of railroad communications. 

The importation of tea from China to Russia is very large. 

Both the internal and the foreign commerce have been greatly 

increased by a network of railways con¬ 
necting the principal cities and sea¬ 
ports. 

In winter, when the ground is frozen and 
covered with snow, travel by sledges is 
easy in every direction. 


Russia’s manufacture of cotton cloth 
is large, giving her an important place 
among the cotton manufacturing na¬ 
tions. Other textiles also, leather goods, 
metals, and potteiy are manufactured 


in large quantities, chiefly in the great cities of ^Moscow and 
Petrograd. 

The chief articles of export are wheat and harley, lumber, and 
flaxseed, wool, petroleum, hemp, furs, and iron. 

Under normal conditions Russia sends to the United States hides, 
wool, hemp, and flax, and buys of us raw cotton, copper; and 
farm machinery. Her exports of grain go to the thickly settled 
countries of Western Europe. 

7. People and Government. —The majority of the people 
belong to the Slavic family; but there are many Germans and 
Jews in the Avest, and Tatars and other Mongolians in the east. 
The masses are very poor and illiterate. 

The Government was formerly a corrupt and oppressive mon¬ 
archy, but in 1917 the Czar, or Emperor, was deposed. His em¬ 
pire has since broken up into many fragments, most of them 
having indefinite boundaries and a very uncertain future. The 
main body of the former empire constitutes the Russian Soviet 
Republic, Avhich is nominally ruled by Soviets, or Societies of 
Workers’, Soldiers’, and Peasants’ Delegates. The power is really 
exercised by a few leaders. All lands, forests, mines, buildings, 
factories, railroads, and waterAvays belong to the State, and are, as 
far as possible, managed by the State. 




















RUSSIA, POLAND, AND THE BALTIC STATES. 


131 


8. Ukraine. —The southwestern part of the Russian plain is 
occupied by the Little Russians, or Ukrainians, who in 1920 en¬ 
deavored to set up an independent republic. This region includes 
about one-tenth of the territory and one-fifth of the people of 
Russia-in-Europe. Here are the best “■black earth” wheat lands, 
the iron and coal mines of the Donetz basin, and the ports on the 
Black Sea. The Dnieper and the Bug are the principal rivers. 

9. Cities. —Moscow, “the Holy City” and capital of Russia, 
is celebrated for a large enclosure, called the Kremlin, which in¬ 
cludes forts, barracks, palaces,and churches, all in a group. It is 
the principal railroad, manufacturing, commercial, political, and 
religious center of the country. The Trans-Siberian railway, 
about 5,000 miles long, connects it with ports on the Pacific Ocean. 

Petrograd was built by Peter the Great on the islands and 
marshes of the Neva River, to be the chief port of his empire. 

It is celebrated for the massive construction of its streets, bridges, 
churches, and palaces. Its population is said to have declined from 
2,000,000 in 1917 to less than 1,000,000 in 1921. 

Kronstadt, on an island in the Gulf of Finland, is a fortified 
naval station and outer port of Petrograd. 

Archangel, on the White Sea, is the shipping port of northern 
Russia. It is closed by ice six months in the year. 

Astrakhan, an island city near the mouth of the Volga, is the 
center of the Caspian Sea fisheries, which are very productive. 

Odessa is the largest city and port on the Black Sea, and ships 
more wheat than any other port in Europe. 

Kief is about as large as Odessa, and is engaged in sugar re¬ 
fining and the manufacture of leather. 


10. Poland. —The ancient Kingdom of Poland, broken up and 
divided more than a century ago, was re-established at the close 
of the World War and became the Polish Republic. It consists 



Kief, on the Dnieper, in the heart of the Black Lands. Notice the wharf boats which rise and fall with 
the river, Com'pare with Memphis. 


of former provinces of Russia, Austria, and Germany in which 
a majority of the people are Polish in blood and speech. It oc¬ 
cupies the north European Plain between Germany and Russia, 
and extends from the Carpathian Mountains to the Baltic Sea. 

About five-sixths of the area is productive. About a quarter of the 
productive area is covered with forest, and the rest is about equally 
divided between pasture or grazing laud and laud which may be 
cultivated to raise crops. 


The agricultural products of Poland are cereals, root crops, and 
flax, similar to those of central Russia and northern Germany. 
Near the mountains ample beds of coal and iron ore support a 
system of steel and textile mills. Zinc, lead, and petroleum are 
also found in that region. 

The provinces which now make up Poland have, in the past, im¬ 
ported chiefly wool and cotton, jute, and machinery. The prin- 



rTarsaw’, with one of the bridges connecting it with Praga on the right bank of the Vistula River, 


cipal e.xports have been manufactured goods, woolen and cotton 
goods, furniture, and farm products. 

The principal waterway is the Vistula River, which enters the Baltic 
Sea at Danzig. Danzig, formerly a German city, has now been 
made a free city under international control, and is a seaport for 
Polish commerce. 

The German province of East Prussia (part of the state of Prussia) 
is separated from the rest of Germany by Polish territory. 

The Poles are Slavonic in race. The majority of the people are 
Roman C’atholics, though there are other Christians and a good 
many .lews. 

Cities. — Warsaw, on the Vistula, the capital of Poland, is a 
large and famous old city. It is the chief railroad, commercial, 
and industrial center. Lodz is a modern city, which has grown 
rapidly with the development of textile manufactures. 

11. The Baltic States. —The former provinces of Russia on 
the Baltic coast are inhabited by people who are neither Slavs nor 
Germans. They have set up three small, independent republics, 
Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Their lands contain much 
forest, and many lakes and marshes. The people are peasant 
farmers, lumbermen, and fishermen. 

The people of Esthonia are akin to the Finns, from whom they 
are separated by the Gulf of Finland. Their principal town is 
the port of Koval. 

The Letts and Lithuanians are Caucasian, but distinct in blood 
and language from all other Europeans. Latvia possesses the port 
of Riga, which rivals Petrograd in importance. Lithuania is the 
most populous of the three states. Kovno is the capital. 

Review Topics. —Russia. Size. People. Volga. Resources. Fains. 
Government. Moscow. Petrograd. Archangel. A.strakhau. Ukraine. People. 
Wheat lands. Kief. Odessa. Poland. Surface. Productive lands. Products. 
Vistula. Danzig. Polish people. Warsaw. Esthonia. Latvia. Lithuania. 
Peoples. Riga. Revel. 





















132 


ROUMANIA AND THE BALKAN COUNTRIES. < 


LXIV. KOUMANIA AND THE BALKAN COUNTRIES. 


curve eastward to the Black Sea. Other mountain ranges ex- 





View of the Balkan Mountains and the valley of the Drina in Jugoslavia. 

1. Roumania. —The kingdom of Roumania is now the largest 
and richest of all the states which have been made out of the ter¬ 
ritory of the former Turkish Empire. It lies across the Carpa¬ 
thian Mountains, and extends far over the Hungarian Plain on 
the west and the Russian Plain on the east. It includes the lower 
basin, delta, and mouths of the Danube River, and has ports on 
tlie Black Sea. 

The mountains are heavily forested with oak and beech. The 
plateau of Transylvania has level pastures and fertile valleys. 
The plains are wheat and corn lands, as productive as the Russian 
black earth. The lower slopes of the mountains are covered with 
orchards and vineyards. The foothills on both 
sides contain coal and petroleum. 

2. People. — 

T'he Roumanians 
are descendants of 
Roman colonists, 
and speak a lan¬ 
guage resembling 
Italian. They are 
mostly farmers 
and herdsmen. 

They belong to the Shepherd in southern Greece. 

(xreek Catholic Church. Jews and gypsies are the only numer¬ 
ous foreign elements in the population of this kingdom. 

3. Products. —The chief crops are wheat and corn, but other 
cereals, also beans and fruits, are grown. Horses, cattle, sheep, 
and goats are raised on both the plains and the plateaus. In the 
mountains, swine are fattened on acorns and nuts. Wheat, pe¬ 
troleum, and timber are exported. 


tend southward to the iEgean Sea. 

6. Resources. —The uplands furnish timber and pasture for 
cattle, sheep, and goats, and nuts for swine. The valleys produce 
grain, roots, and fruit, especially plums and grapes. Methods of 
agriculture are crude. Cattle are generally used for draft ani¬ 
mals. Raw silk, olive oil, and attar of roses are produced in 
favorable localities. 

7. People. —The Balkan Peninsula is occupied by people of 
many races, languages, and religions, rather intricately mixed. 
They have few common interests to hold them together. They 
have suffered for centuries under the cruel and corrupt rule of 
the Turks. Relieved from the Turkish yoke, they have organ¬ 
ized several independent states. 

8. Yugoslavia. —The old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro 
have united with former southern provinces of A'ustria-Hungary 
to establish the “Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes,” 
commonly called Yugoslavia, or the land of the South Slavs. It 
is a kingdom of farmers and herdsmen, who generally own land 
and are thrifty. They are nearly all Greek Catholics or Roman 
Catholics. 

Their foreign 


THotoing on the Tilains of Thessaly in northern 
Greece. 


commerce is small, 
partly on account of 
lack of seaports. 
The Danube River 
is open to all na- 
tions,‘and'railr6ads 
extend to the Bos¬ 
porus and to the 
.(Egean Sea. The 
city of Fiuine, the 
only port on the 
Adriatic Sea acces- 
Ruins of temple at Olympia. Yugoslavia, 

i.s connected by rail with both Italy and Yugoslavia. 

Belgrade, an old fortified city on the Danube, 
formerly the capital of Serbia, is now the capital of Yugoslavia, 
and is the scat of a university. 

9. Bulgaria. —East of Yugoslavia, the plateau is occupied by 
the kingdom of Bulgaria. It lies across the main range of the 
Balkans, soutli of which are the smoothest and most productive 
lands. There are no good harbors on the Bulgarian coast. The 
Bulgarians are comparatively recent emigrants from Asia, and 
are related to the 
Turks. They 
have generally 
adopted Slavic 
language and cus¬ 
toms. Most of 
them are Greek 
Catholics, but 
there are many 
Mohammedans. 

Most of the peo¬ 
ple cultivate 

small farms. Ship passing through the canal cut through the isthmus at Corinth. 


4. Cities.— Bucharest, the capital, is an elegant city, called 
“■ the Paris of the East.” Galatz, Braila, and Constantza are 
busy ports on the Black Sea. Jassy is the commercial center of 
eastern Roumania. 

5. The Balkan Peninsula.— That part of Europe lying south 
of the Save and lower Danube rivei’s, and between the Adriatic 
and Black seas, is called the Balkan Peninsula, to which the 
Greek Peninsula is a secondary annex. It is a rugged and 
largely forested plateau, bordered on the west by the barren chain 
of the Dinaric Alps. These mountains rise precipitously from 
the water, and render access to the Adriatic difficult. In the 
east the Balkan Mountains, a continuation of the Carpathians, 
































ALBANIA, GREECE, AND TURKEY. 


133 





Mosque of the Sultan Achmet of Constantinople, 


View of the Golden Horn and Constantinople. 

Sofia, the capital and only large town, is on the railroad from 
Paris and Vienna to Constantinople. 

10. Albania. —Among the high mountains on the Adriatic 
•coast, about one million Albanians claim independence. In blood 
and speech they are distinct from all other Europeans, but have 
little social unity or political cohesion. They are rude herdsmen, 
brave and warlike, and have never submitted to foreign rule. 

11. Greece. —The southern extension of the Balkan Peninsula 
differs widely from the main body in position, climate, people, and 
history. The surface is broken by mountain ranges which radiate 
like fingers, and inclose beauti¬ 
ful valleys and arms of the sea. 

The climate is like that of the 
rest of the Mediterranean region, 
mild and wet in winter, hot and 
<iry in summer. 

12. History. —In ancient 
times the Greeks were the most 
highly civilized people on earth, 
and the works of their statesmen, 
philosophers, poets, orators, and 
artists still stand unrivaled. After the fall of the Roman Em¬ 
pire, Greece was overrun by Slavic invaders, and later came under 
the rule of the Turks. In 1828 it overthrew Turkish oppression 
and became an independent kingdom; in 1922 it became a 
republic. 

The present republic of Greece includes not only the Greek 
peninsula but most of the coast lands and islands of the Aegean 
Sea, and extends eastward along the northern coast of the A]gean as 
far as the Maritza River. 


13. Industries. —As in Italy, irrigation is generally necessary 
for successful farming. Grapes, fig.s, and olives are extensively 
cultivated, but by far the most important product is the currant 
(a species of small grape), which is grown all along the shores of 
the Morea. We get also from Greece olive ou, sponges, marble, 
and licorice. We sell to Greece cotton, kerosene, and machinery. 

Greek merchants and sailors carry on a large part of the com¬ 
merce of the Levant, as the countries bordering on the eastern 
part of the Mediterranean are called. 

14. Cities. — Athens, the capital of Greece, is a well-built, 
modern residence city, made famous by the ruins of the Parthenon, 


In Athens, showing the Acropolis, and the ruins of the Parthenon. On the right are the ruins of the 
Temple of Jupiter Olympus. The residences are all modern. 


once the most beautiful building in the world. It is a few miles 
inland from the port of Piraeus. 

Salonica, at the mouth of the Vardar valley, is the natural out¬ 
let of the whole Balkan Peninsula, and its most important seaport. 
It is inhabited largely by Spanish .Tews. Corinth, on the isthmus 
of that name, is now noted for its ship canal, only four miles long, 
which completes the separation of the Morea, or southern part of 
the Greek Peninsula, from the main body. 

15. Turkey-in-Europe.—All that remains of the Turkish pos¬ 
sessions in Europe is the city of Con.stantinople and a few thousand 
square miles west of that city. It occupies one of the most beautiful 
and commanding sites in the world. It is situated on the river-like 
strait of the Bosporus, where the waterway between the Black Sea 
and the Mediterranean is narrowest. At this point the principal 
land route from Europe crosses into Asia. It has been for thou¬ 
sands of years a center of trade and power, successively held by 
Greeks, Romans, and Turks. The strait is only nineteen miles long, 
but it is wide and deep enough for the largest steamers to navigate 
it. Cargoes of grain, oil, wool, lumber, and other products are 
always passing through it. 

At the southern end of the strait, where it opens into the Sea of 
Marmora, is a small peninsula curving out and almost blocking the 

entrance; this peninsula forms 
a horn-shaped inlet, a wide and 
deep harbor, which is so filled 
with rich shipping that it is 
called the Golden Horn. At the 
southern end of the Sea of Mar¬ 
mora, between the peninsula of 
Gallipoli and Asia Minor, is an¬ 
other strait, called the Darda¬ 
nelles. The Sea of Marmora and 
the straits of the Bosporus and 
Dardanelles connect the Black and Algean seas and separate Turkey 
in Europe from Turkey in Asia. These two divisions form the 
Republic of Turkey. 


Review Topics. —Roumania. Natural features. Rivers. Coast. Moun¬ 
tains. Plains. People. Products. Cities. Seaports. Balkan Peninsula. Bomid- 
aries. Surface. Dinaric Alps. Balkans. Resources. Agriculture. People. 
Commerce. Fiume. Belgrade. Bulgaria. Position. People. Valona. Greece. 
Position. Surface. Climate. History. Present territory. Industries. Products. 
Athens. Salonica. Corinth. Constantinople. Site. History. Harbor. Gov¬ 
ernment. 





























ASIA 


LXV. PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

1 . We now pass from the States of Europe to the oldest 
nations and the largest continent on the globe. 

Asia is larger than the two Americas together. 

It contains the highest mountains and plateaus in the world, 
the largest population, and the greatest variety of race, language, 
and religion. Its coast line is marked by many indentations. 

2. Surface.—The continent may be divided into three sections: 
the Great Northern Plain; the Central Region of desert 
plateaus and mountains; and the Peninsulas of the south. 

The Great Northern Plain extends from the Altai Mountains 
and the Caspian Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Its extreme northern 
portion, bordering on the Frozen Ocean, consists of low marshes 
called Tundras. 

The tundras are dreary and desolate. Their scanty population is 



On the Great Northern Plain of Asia.—A small town in Siberia. 


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composed of the nomad tribes 
called Samoiedes, who live 
mainly on fish and the flesh of 
the reindeer. 

South of this belt is a vast 
forest region, extending from 
the Gulf of Finland to the Pa¬ 
cific shores of Asia, a distance 
of 4,000 miles. It is the abode 
of numerous fur-bearing animals. 

In the west, between this 
wooded region and the moun¬ 
tains, are the steppes, or rolling 
prairies, which are gay with 

flowers in the spring, and green view of the plateau of Anatolia and the Bos- 
.., . , porxis. from the shore of Europe^ near Con* 

with grass in the summer. stantinopie. 

They are the home of the roving Kirghiz {-gez) and Tatars {tah’-), who 
here find pasturage for their herds. 

The Central Region of desert plateaus and mountains extends 
from the Red Sea nearly to the Pacific Ocean. It may be di¬ 
vided into two portions, an eastern and a western. 

The Eastern portion embraces Tibet (the loftiest plateau on 
the globe), with the desert plateaus of Turkestan and Mongolia, 




View of the Kirghiz steppes. These tents are the only homes of the TaiarSy who move from 

place to place when necessary to find better pasturage for their herds. 


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136 


ASIA: PHYSICAL FEATURES, 


and a region of less elevation 
lying to the eastward and slop¬ 
ing gradually to the sea. 

This region is bortlered by 
the Altai Mountains on the 
north, and the Himalayas on 
the south, and is traversed east 
and west by lofty mountain 
chains. 

The Himalayas {abode of snorr) 
are the highest mountains in 

the world summits of the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world. These are young moun¬ 

tains. and are always covered with snow. Notice that scattered through the glacier are bowlders 

Along* their entire length of 1,500 of rock which have been broken off, and uUl be carried down to the valley below. 

miles they rise far above the line of perpetual snow. Among their 
many lofty peaks stands the majestic Mount Everest, more than 29,- 
000 feet high. 

These mountains present every possible feature of mountain grandeur: 
peak and precipice, gorge and glacier, rugged ravine and headlong 
Avaterfall. They are grander than the Alps, but not so beautiful. 




The western portion comprises 
mainly the desert plateaus of 
Arabia and Iran, which are 
separated from the great north¬ 
ern plain by the Hindu Knsh and 
Elburz Mountains. 

The Peninsulas of Asia have a 
varied surface of tablelands and 
low mountains, well-tvatered val¬ 
leys and river plains. 

They are a region of great interest in 
the history of the world. From 
Arabia, Mohammedan civilization 
took its origin; and the Sanskrit, or sacred tongue of India, is the 
oldest language of the white race. 

India and Indo-China are, with China and Japan, among the most 
densely populated portions of the world. 

3. Rivers and Lakes.—The rivers of Asia are numerous and 
important. 

The most noteworthy are the Hoang, Yangtze, and Amur, 
which flow down the eastern slope of the continent and enter the 
Pacific, and the Ganges and Indus, the Mekong, Irawadi, and 
Brahmaputra, which descend the southern slope and flow into the 
Indian Ocean. 

Tliese riv’^ei’s have built up the rich flood plains of China, Indo-China, 
and India, and furnish water routes for a vast internal commerce. 

The Hoang River or Yellow River has built up its flood plain with 
deposits of rich earth called “ Loess,” much like the bluff formation 
of the Mississippi. The Hoang winds about in its flood plains and 
frequently cuts a new channel for itself to the sea. 


View on ike lofty plateau of Tibet. 


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138 


ASIA.—PJVERS, CLIMATE, AND VEGETATION. 



View on the sacred river Ganges at BenareSt 
showing bridge of boats in the distance, 

Tlie principal rivers of western 
Asia are tlie Euphrates and 
Tigris, which enter the Persian 
Gulf. 

The Ob, Yeiiesei, and Lena are 
the chief rivers of the Northern 
Plain. They are frozen over for 
six months of the year; but dur¬ 
ing summer they are the water¬ 
ways for local commerce. Yangtze at Shanghai. 

The Yenesei, Ob, and Yangtze are Notice the landing and native boats in the fore- 

, ground. A British gunboat and one of ours 

each more than 3,000 miles in are in mid stream. 
length. 

Several of the rivers, like the Amazon, are subject to bores. Those 
of the Indus, the Hoogly, and the Brahinaputi-a are remarkable. 

The plateaus and plains of Asia abound with salt lakes. The 
Caspian and Aral Seas are the largest of these. 

The Caspian is the largest lake in the world. It is more than four 
times the size of Lake Superior. 

The Dead Sea, whose surface is nearly 1,300 feet below the level 
of the Mediterranean, is the lowest of these salt lakes. 


generally a temperate climate with the exception of Tibet, Avhioh, 
owing to its elevation, is bleak, and largely uninhabitable. 

The great peninsulas of the south, and the desert plateaus of 
Western Asia have, for the most part, a tropical or hot climate. 

2. Moisture.—A glance at the physical map shows that ,most 
of Asia west of the Ilala ^Mountains (which form the boundary 
between the plains of the Indus and the plateau of Iran), and 
south of the fortieth parallel of latitude, is poorly watered. 

This region is mainly occupied by 
the plateaus of Iran and Arabia, 
which are enclosed by low moun¬ 
tains that border the coast. The.se 
mountains rob the sea breezes of 
their moisture, and render the in¬ 
terior plains generally dry and 
barren. 

Eastward of the Hala Moun¬ 
tains we find the peninsulas of 
India and Indo-China. Thev lie 


The valley of the Irawodi at Mandalay, showing palace and temples of the last king. 


Of the fresb-water lakes the largest is Lake Baikal. It is 400 
miles in length, and is a valuable highway for commerce. In 
winter it is frozen over and becomes a highway of trade and 


in the region of the southwest monsoons, which come from the 
sea loaded with moisture. Consequently these peninsulas are 
abundantly watered and exceedingly fertile. 


travel. 



Review Topics. —Compare Asia with the other continents in size. Physi¬ 
cal features. Population. Its three divisions. Noi’thern Plain. The tun- 

ilras. Forest region. 
Steppe.s. The Centra] 
region. Its extent. 
Divisions. The east¬ 
ern. The Himalayas. 
The western portion. 
The surface of the 
peninsulas. What 
makes them interest¬ 
ing? The chief rivers 
of t he eastern slope of 
Asia; of the southern 
slope. What two 
great purposes do 

The Yangtze nver cutting its way mrougn me mountains, mis river' 
is the great commercial highway of China. It is navigable for ocean tliese rivers Serve.' 
steamers 700 miles, and for smaller vessels. 1,500 miles higher. \t ,.;voru nf 

There are many dangerous rapids, and from 50 to 200 men are -’"mv luv oi 

required to pull each boat up the stream past these rapids. western Asia; of tlie 

Northern Plain. Which are tlie longest rivers of Asia? How long are they? 
What is said of the salt lakes? The largest? What is said of the Dead Sea? 
Name the largest of the fresh-water lakes. 


LXVI. CLIMATE, VEGETATION, RACES. 

1. Climate.—The Northern Plain receives the cold winds of 
the Arctic Ocean. Its winters are long and severe, and its 
summers short. 

Central Asia, between the Altai and Hunalaya Mountains, has 


The Monsoons are .so named from the Arabic word for season. For 
six months, including the winter, the winds come from the interior 
and are dry: these are the northeast monsoons. For tlie other six 
months, which are the summer months, the winds come from the 
sea and are moist: these are the sontliwest monsoons. Tliey bring 
clouds and make the rainy season. The annual rainfall of India 
varies from 66 inches at the mouth of the Ganges, to 500 inches 
among the mountains. 

3. Vegetation and Animals.—Besides the difference in 
amount of moisture, there is also a marked contrast between the 
vegetation and animals found in the country east and those found 
in the country tvest of the llala Mountains. 

On the east we 
trees; cinnamon 
and other spices; 
the sweet-scented 
sandahvood, cot¬ 
ton, rice, and 
indigo; the tea- 
plant and cam¬ 
phor tree of 
China, the mango 
and the banana. 

Here also are 
found, in tlie 


find the teak, the bamboo, ebony, and ban van 



The banyan tree is a very remaricauie tree, some of whose brandies 

grow downward and take root, as shown in the picture. 



































ASIA.—PEOPLE AND CIVILIZATION. 


13U 



dense forests und jungles, the largest animals, such as the elephant, 
rhinoceros, and tapir, and some of the most ferocious, such as the 
tiger; serj)ents of the most venomous kind, and birds, such as the 
peacock, of the most brilliant plumage. 

Tibet is the home of the yak, or grunting ox, which loves to roam 
above the snow-line. 

On the west the teak and banyan are replaced by the oak and 
the ash. The peach, the olive, the lig, and other fruit trees, 
with the vine, the melon, and the rose, are natives of this 
region, and are found also in Euro})e. 

Among useful aiiiiuals found here are the camel and the dromedary 
(called ships of the desert), horses, cows, goats, and sheep. 

4. Races and Religion.—Asia is onnipied mainly by 


The gates of the city of Lucknow, 

two great races: the 
Caucasian, which inhab¬ 
its Western Asia and In¬ 
dia, and the Mongolian, 
which is found in East¬ 
ern Asia. The ^Malays 
occupy the Malay Penin¬ 
sula and neighboring 
islands. 

Tlie yellow hair, blue 
ej^es and fair skin so 
common among the 
Caucasians of Europe 
are replaced in the Caucasians of Asia by black hair and eyes and 
dark comple.xions. 

In the valleys of western Asia the Caucasian race developed a high 
degree of civilization thousands of years ago. Families of this race 
built the great cities of Nineveh, Baalbek and Babylon, and founded 
the historic empires of the Eiist. Our written history begins with 
them. From them we get our alphabet, our Arabic numerals, and 
the elements of algebra and astronomy. The Caucasians crossed 
the mountains into India in early times and founded empires there 
and built great cities which are now in ruins. 

Asia lias been the cradle of all the prominent religious of the 
world. Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Mo¬ 
hammedanism all had their origin within its limits. 

The last three are the prevailing forms of religion throughout Asia. 


6. National Rank. — Several countries of Asia are the most 
populous in the world, but excejiting -Japan, there is not one 
that has risen to importance as a commercial or naval power. 

6. Political Geography. — Large portions of Asia belong to 
Russia. Not counting them, the countries of Asia may be divided 
into three groups : 

1. Tlie four native indepeiulent nations. 

These are China, -Tajjan, Persia, and Siam. -Japan, Persia, and Siam 
are limited monarchies, while China is a republic. These four- 
countries embrace about one-third of the total area of Asia, and they 

contain nearly two-thirds of its in¬ 
habitants. 

II. Countries belonging to for¬ 
eign powers, as India, Burma, the 
Straits Settlements and French 
Indo-China. 

III. Districts, such as Arabia 
and Afghanistan, Avhich are occu¬ 
pied by tribes that have no respon¬ 
sible government. 

7. Modes of Life and Civili¬ 
zation-—The Hindus, Chinese, 
and Japanese have attained a 
high degree of civilization. 

The palaces, temples and tombs of India 
are of wonderful beauty. 


Interior of the palace of the Moguls, at Delhi. 


Hindu Civilization: 1. A Brahmin temple at Madura, the sacred city of southern India, 
near Madras. The temple is 840 by 744 feel, and from the center of each wall rises a pyramid 
of nine stories, each story supported by sculptured figures. Th%s is a picture of the principal 
pyramid, which is 152 feet high. 2. Brahmin college at Jeypore. 

Iteview Topics. — 'I'he climate of the Northern Plain. Of Central 
Asia. The peninsulas. What portion of Asia is poorly watered? Why? Why 
arc India and Indo-China well watered? Monsoons. In what directions and 
for how long do they blow? What makes the southwest monsoons? Name 
some of the plants found east of the Hala Mountains. Some of the animals. 
What jilants and fruits are found west of these mountains? What animals? 
What races occu[)y most of Asia? Where do the Malays live? Ilow do 
Asiatics differ frotn Europeans in appearance? What religions have origi¬ 
nated in Asia? Has any native Asiatic country ever been an important com¬ 
mercial or naval power? How may the States of Asia be grouped? Which 
of the Asiatic nations are civilized? 


CODNTRIES OF .431A. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population. 

Countries. 

Area in 

Sqr. Miles. 

Population. 

C0UNTRIE8. 

Area in 

Sqr Miles. 

Population. 

China and dependencies. 

Indo- fSiam . 

China\French Indo-China, etc. 

Empire of Japan. 

British India, etc. 

Syria. 

4,300,000 

245,000 

256,463 

261,300 

1,856,500 

80,000 

320,880,000 

8,266,000 

17,269,000 

77,606,000 

319,075,000 

3,000,000 

Ceylon. 

Iraq. 

Straits Settlements.... 

Palestine . 

Afghanistan. 

Persia. 

25,500 

140,000 

35,600 

9,000 

240,900 

635,000 

4,568,000 

2,850,000 

2,377,000 

757,000 

6,380,000 

9,500,000 

-Asiatic Turkey. 

Arabia, Hedjaz, and Oman 

Asiatic Russia. 

Armenia. 

Georgia. 

Azerbaijan .. 

295,000 

1.121.500 

6.721.500 
15,000 
26,000 
34,000 

10,000,000 

4,300,000 

23,852,000 

1,214,000 

2,372,000 

2,097,000 


































































140 


CHINA. 



This IS a iarmnouse in the great flood-plain near Shanghai. 

LXVII. CHINA. 




1 . China occupies the central part of Eastern Asia. It 
includes China proper — with its dependencies, Manchuria, 
Mongolia, Tibet, and Sinkiang—and embraces an area larger 

than the entire continent of Europe. 

The estimated population is over 320,000,000, or about one-fifth that 
of the entire globe. It is chiefly Mongolian. 

2. China.—China consists of 
the great plains of the Hoang 
and the Yangtze rivers, together 


with adjoining mountain re¬ 
gions. The climate is varied, 

Curling the tea leaves. One man is curling and reSemblcS that of OUr OWn 
the leaves with his feet, the other is arranging _j_ 

■them oil pans to put in the sun to dry. COUHtrj . -L llG SOll IS IGrt»li6. 

China is one the oldest and most densely populated countries 


The leading manufactures of China are silk, cotton, and por¬ 
celain. The manufacture of iron, wool, and floirr is increasing. 

Great use is made of the bamboo in building houses, boats, and bridges, 
and in making furniture and household utensils. 

The Chinese are extensively engaged in sea fisheries. 

Commerce.—China has a vast internal commerce. 


This is carried on by rivers and canals, as most roads are passable onl} 
for carts and wheelbarrows. In the mountains donkeys are used, 
and in the deserts, the camel. Several thousand miles of railroads 
have been built, and all the principal cities of China are now connected 
with one another by telegraph. The Chinese and Russian lines 
together place Pekin in telegraphic communication wdth Europe. 




China is raj^idly enlarging its 
foreign intercourse, and has 
adopted many of the customs 
and inventions of modern civi¬ 
lization. 


Bringing tea over the mountains to market 
in western China. 

Formerly the laws of China ex¬ 
cluded all foreigners from the country. 
For a long time the port of Canton 
only was open to foreign trade. 
Packing tea in hales at Tientsin. About forty portS are noW Opcn. 

There is a great caravan trade between China and Russia, which has 
its rendezvous at Maimatchin. (See Trade Chart, pages 166 and 167.) 


The principal exports are silk, beans, and tea. The chief imports 
from the United States are cotton cloth and yarn, kerosene, 
tobacco, and lumber. China has a large trade with Southern 
Asia, from which she imports vast amounts of rice. 

5. People.—The Chinese are industrious, patient, economical, 
and ingenious. 


in the world. 

The land is filled to overflowing with people. For want of dwelling 
space near large cities, no less than three millions of the people live 
in boats, which are arranged in streets on the rivers, as houses are 
on the land. Every available foot of land is under cultivation. 

3. Mineral Wealth.—The Chinese coal-beds are among the 
most extensive in the world. Iron and salt, gold, silver, copper, 
tin, antimony, quicksilver, lead, zinc, and precious stones abound. 
The deposits of porcelain clay are very large. 

4. Pursuits and Productions.—Of all pursuits, agriculture 
is the most honored by the Chinese. The farmers have in many 
places cultivated the soil even into the roadways, so narrowing 
them that they have become hardly wider than footpaths. 

Tea is the great agricultural staple. 

Tea is the leaf of an evergreen shrub that grows about five feet high. 
The leaves are picked by hand, rolled, and dried. The laborers are 
paid a few cents a day. 


They invented gunpowder and the mariner’s compass, and nave under¬ 
stood the art of printing, paper-making, and manufacturing “China” 
ware for ages. Their skill in the carving of ivory is marvelous. 

The most famous public works are the Grand Canal, 700 miles in 



View of the great Chinese wall. 


Cotton and the mulberry-tree are extensively cultivated. The 
culture of silk is as important as that of tea. Rice and millet are 
the chief articles of food. 


length, and the Great Wall, 1.200 miles in length, from 15 to,30 
feet high, and so broad that six men on horseback can ride abreast 
upon it. 

It was designed as a work of defense against the invading Tatars 




















CHINA, 


141 


{tali'tars). It was 
completed more 
than two hundred 
years befoi'e the 
birth of Christ. 

The Grand Canal 
was constructed 
over twelve hun¬ 
dred years ago. 

6. Govern- 
ment and Re- 
1igion.—T h e 
people, long un¬ 
der the govern¬ 
ment of an abso¬ 


have now adopted the republican form of government. Bud¬ 
dhism and Confucianism are the chief religions. 

The important features of the latter religion are the worship of ancestors 
and obedience to the moral teachings of Confucius. It has no priest¬ 
hood, but in nearly eveiy home incense is kept continuously burning 
before tablets upon which are written the names of ancestors of the 
head of the household. 

7. Education is eagerly sought for. In recent years hundreds 
of Chinese young men, and a few young women, have been sent 
to the United States and Europe to be educated. 

At Pekin a University of foreign knowledge #ias been established by the 
government, to furnish instruction in the European languages and 
sciences. 


lute monarchy, 



Steps leading down to the river at Hankau. 


ings and gardens, and manufactures silk. Chaug-slia is the center 
of the silk business. 


9. Manchuria is by far the richest dependency of China. 



Southern Manchuria closely resembles China. Its hills are covered to 
their summits with luxui-iant vegetation; its valleys yield abundant 
crops of maize, wheat, and millet; and tobacco of excellent quality 
is grown in its fertile fields. 

In the west are extensive grassy 
prairies, and the inhabitants 
are nomadic herdsmen. 

Northern J^Iauchiiria has an 
exceedingly cold climate. To it 
the Chinese banish pirates, rob¬ 
bers, and political offenders. 


Chinese joss house or temple at Canton. 

It is for China what Siberia is 
for Russia. 

The walled city of Miik<leii is 
the capital. 

10. Mongolia is an arid re¬ 
gion, embracing the larger part 

street scene in Pekin. Notice the cart in „+• tlio Tiootn't nf tfrihi 
which an American passenger is seated. OI lUe J_^eseit, OI ViOOl. 


It is peopled by Mongols, who are nomadic. They wander from one 
fertile spot to another, seeking pasturage for their flocks. The 
caravans between China and western Asia pass over this dreary 
desert. 




8. Cities.—China contains more large cities than any other 
country in the world. 

They are compactly built, and the streets are narrow. The temples 
and pagodas are magnificent. 

Pekin, about 100 miles from the sea, is the capital. It has a 
population of more than a million. 

Hankau is on the Yangtze river, at its junction with the Han. 
There are really three large cities at this point, the others being 
Hanyang and Wuchang. Together they form the largest center 
of population in China. Hankau is famous for its learning, its 
manufactures of 
metal, and its ex¬ 
port of tea. 

S i a n g t a n, a 
great teamart, 
is as large, and 
Tientsin, a 
great port, 
nearly as 
large, as Pe¬ 
kin. Fiiclian 
is the center of 
a large tea 

Street scene in Hongkong. Notice the coolies with their broad hats and 
trade, and of bare feet, and the jinrikishas in which people travel in that dtp. 

cotton manufactul'ing. Nankin is the chief .seat of learning. 


11. Tibet occupies the highest part of the central plateau of 
Asia, and is a cold country. 

The scanty population is found 
chiefly in the fertile valleys, where 
the people find pasturage for their 
vast herds of cattle and flocks of 
sheep and goats. 

Lassa, the capital, is the residence 
of the Grand Lama, or head of 
the Tibetan government, and is 
the chief seat of the Buddhist 
worship. A monastery near by 
is the home of 7,700 priests. 

La.ssa is a great trading center 
for al 1 the neighboring countries. 

From December to Mai*ch it is 
thronged by merchants. 

12. Sinkiang is the name now A. farmnouse on the plateau oj i lOet, 
given to the fourth and most remote outside (.’hinese province. 
It includes, with Chinese Turkestan and Sungaria, all of Chi¬ 
nese Central Asia between Tibet on the south and IVIongolia on 
the north. Much of it is desert, with scattered oases. 

Ka.sligar and Yarkand are the chief centers of trade—the former 
with Russian Turkestan and the latter with Kashmir across the 
Karakorum Pass. 


Shanghai and Canton, the principal seaports, have an immense 
commerce. * 

At King-te-ching are great porcelain factories. They employ many 
thousand operatives. Suchau is famed for the beauty of its build¬ 


Review Topics.—China and dependencies. Area. Population. China proper. 
Climate. Age and population. Boat population. Mineral wealth. Agriculture. 
Products. Chief food. Manufactures. Bamboo. Commerce. Caravan trade. 
Exports. People. Inventions. Famous public works. Government. Religion. 
Education. How are public offices assigned? Cities. Manchuria. Mongolia. 
Tibet. Population. Capital. Sinkiang. Kashgar and Yarkand. Kulja. 


















142 


JAPAK. 





2. After the worms are full ffrovm they spin n 
cocoon about themselves; the cocoons are the7i 
plunged into boiling water to kill the worm, who 
would otherwise eat his way out and spoil the silk. 

Making raw silk in Japan, 1. The woman is with its majestic COlie 

feeding the silkworms with mulberry leaves. SHOW^ IS au extmct VolcailO 

rising 14,000 feet above the sea. It was formerly an object of 
veneration. 

Near Kiushu there is a small islet with a volcano, which, like Strom- 
boli, in the Mediterranean, serves as a lighthouse. 

2. Mineral Resources.—Japan is not rich in mineral re¬ 
sources ; but copper and iron are abundant, and gold, silver, sul¬ 
phur, and coal are mined. Mineral springs abound. 

3. Climate.—The climate resembles that of our Atlantic sea¬ 
board, though it is somewhat milder, owing to the insular position 
of Japan. 

At Tokyo the summer temperature ranges from 70° to 90°; in winter 
the snow seldom lies long. 

4. Productions.—The principal crops are rice and tea. Rice 
is the chief article of food. 

Among the productions are the tree from which the Japanese get 
the gum for their beautiful “Japan ware”; the wax-tree, from 
which they get a kind of wax for their candles—the manufacture 
of which is an important industry; and the paper-mulberry, 
from which they manufacture paper. 

The chief exports are silk, rice, tea, camphor, copper, and cot¬ 
ton goods. The chief imports are iron and steel goods, machin¬ 
ery, flour, kerosene, and tobacco. 


4. Packing the hanks of raw silk into hales, 
some of which are brought to Paterson, N, J,, to 
be woven, (See page 47.) 

3. The cocoons are put in warm wat^ to loosen The Japanese used the art of print- 
the fiber, which is then reeled off into hanks. ino* long" bcfor© it W3-S illVGIltsd 

in Europe. They liave a literature of great antiquity and repute. 

Many Japanese students are educated in Europe and the United States. 

8 . Religion.—There is no state religion. The people are 
largely Buddhists. Many, however, have become Christians. 

9. Customs.—Many curious customs prevail. 

Owing to the fact that the country is so subject to earthquakes, the 
dwellings are generally of wood. They are all built according to 
one of tliree or four plans; so that, in furnishing a house, you have 
only to go to the upholsterer and order mats and other articles fora 
house of one or other of these patterns. 

The Japanese have no chairs, sofas, or beds; they use their clothes for 
bed-covering, and sleep upon the mats on which they sit during the 
day. 

10. Cities.—The cities of Japan are numerous. Tokyo, the 


Planting rice in Japan. 


5. People.—In commerce, manufacturing, and general enter¬ 
prise the Japanese are the most progressive of the Mongolian 
race. Since 1854 they have opened their ports to foreign trade 
and residents. Hundreds of steamers ply regularly between 
Japan and ports of our own and other countries. 

In the manufacture of porcelain the Japanese are equal to any nation 
in the world; in certain kinds of metal work they excel all; their 
silk fabrics are of superior excellence; they make numerous varieties 
of paper, many of which are very beautiful. “Japan ware” is 
made by them alone. 

They have adopted the best features of the military systems 
of modern nations, and have introduced post-oflices, railways, 
and telegraphs. 

6 . The Government is a monarchy. The “ Mikado ” is 
aided by a Great Council. A constitution has been adopted. 

7. Education.—Public schools have been established, and the 
education of boys is universal and compulsory. The Imperial 
University of Tokyo is an in¬ 
stitution of high rank. 


LXVIII. JAPAN. 


A water mill and Japanese village, with the famous volcano, Fujiyama, in the background- Between 
the first two buildings on the left is a water wheel which runs a mill. 

1. Japan consists of four large islands, Hondo, Kiushu, Shi¬ 
koku, and Yezo, together with the southern half of Sakhalin, 
and numerous smaller islands. 

Its area and population are a little larger than the area and popula¬ 
tion of the British Islands. 

The coasts are generally bold and rock}^, and abound in con¬ 
venient harbors. 

The country is mountainous, and in many places volcanic. It 
is more subject to earthquakes 
than any other region. 




































JAFA'N; INDO-CHINA. 


143 





Review Topics.—What does Indo-China occupy? What does it include? 
The monsoon and the rainfall. Minerals. The tin mines. Precious stones. Pe¬ 
troleum. Principal productions. Chief article of food. Forest pi’oducts. Oil trees. 
Exports. Commerce. Animals.' Elephant. Government. Religion. Manners 
and customs. Foreign influence. Bangkok. Rangoon. Mandalay. Singapore. 
Hano'i. The Malay Peninsula. The Malays. 


capital, is the largest city and the commercial metropolis. It is 
connected by railroad with Yokohama, the principal seaport. 

Kyoto is an important seat of learning, and has extensive manufac¬ 
tures. Osaka is a center for all kinds of native manufactures. In 
social affairs and fashion, it is the Paris of Jajjan. In and near the 
city are hundreds of schools. Its canals are crossed hy more than a 
thousand bridges. 

Hakodate is the princiijal port of Yezo. Nagasaki is the port where 
Europeans were first permitted to reside as merchants. 

11. Formosa, a fertile island off the coast of China, belongs 
to Japan. It exports largely tea and camphor. 

12. Korea occupies the peninsula between the Sea of Japan 
and the Yellow Sea. It is under the control of Japan. Seoul 
(sa-ooV'^ is the chief cit}”^. The worship of ancestors prevails. 

Education is held in high esteem, and, as in China, public officials 
are required to pass examinations. The Koreans are skilled in the 
manufacture of paper. Agriculture is the chief industry. Rice, 
grains of all kinds, and beans are cultivated. Rice, beans, and gin¬ 
seng are exported. 

Review Topics.—Of what does Japan consist? Area. The coasts. Sur¬ 
face. Volcanoes. Mineral resources. Climate. Productions. Exports. Im¬ 
ports. Character of people. Manufactures. 

Government. Education. Art of printing. 

Literature. Religion. Customs. Cities. 

Korea. Formosa. 

LXIX. INDO-CHINA. 

1. Indo-China occupies the 
southeastern peninsula of Asia. 

It includes French Indo-China, 
the independent native kingdom 
of Siam, also Burma and Assam 
in British India, and the Straits 
Settlements, having under their 

protection the Malay States. mephants atworicin ttiejorests of Indo-China. 

The shores of Indo-China, during the prevalence of the south¬ 
west monsoon, are inundated by the violence of the sea. 

There is also an immense fall of rain, causing an overflow of the luvere. 

2. Minerals.—These countries are rich in minerals, including 
gold, tin, lead, copper, and zinc. 

The tin mines of the Malay peninsula and the neighboring islands 
furnish nearly one-half of the world’s supply of tin. The ruhy 
mines of Burma are very celebrated. Petroleum springs are common. 

3. Productions.—Bice, indigo, cotton, the sugar cane, to¬ 
bacco, and the mulberrt’^ are extensively cultivated. The chief 
article of food is rice. 

In the forests are found the valuable teak, the taban, which yields 
gutta-percha, the tree also which yields gamboge, with other dye- 


Native qitarler of Hanoi, the capital of French Indo-China. 
woods, cinnamon trees, and the sweet-scented eaglewood, which is 
burned as incense in the heathen temples. Oil trees, from the nuts 
of which oil is extracted, abound in Burma. 

The commerce of Indo-China with China and Japan is very 
large. Bice, sugar, raw cotton, and fish are exchanged for cot¬ 
ton yarn, tea, and manufactured goods. The chief exports are 
tin, rice, sugar, tobacco, cinnamon, and teakwmod. 

4. Animals.—The elephant, 
tiger, rhinoceros, leopard, and 
buffalo are all found wild in 
great numbers. The waters are 
alive with crocodiles, the forests 
with monkeys. 

The elephant is used as a domestic 
animal. "White elephants are vei-y 
rare and very much honored. They' 
are not permitted to work and are 
given separate houses from those of 
the gray ones. 

5. Government and Peli- 
gionv—The despotic native gov¬ 
ernments have given way to the beneficial control and influence of 
England and France. In religion the people are chiefly Buddhists. 

In industry and intelligence they are very inferior to the Chinese 
on the one side and the Hindus on the other. 

6. The Eiigli.sli and French are rapidly developing the vast 
resources of Indo-China. They are introducing railways, tele¬ 
graphs, post-offices, and schools. 

7. Cities.— Bangkok is the capital of Siam, and the largest 
city on the peninsula. 

Numbers of its people live in bamboo huts floating on rafts in the river. 

Rangoon and Mandalay are the chief cities of Burma; Singa¬ 
pore is the chief city of the Straits Settlements; Hanoi' is the 
capital and chief city of French Indo-China. 

The last king of Burma, who was deposed by the British, lived at Man¬ 
dalay, and you will find a picture of liis palace on page 138. 

8 . The Malay Peninsula is occupied by the Straits Settle¬ 
ments (a British colony) and the Malay States (under British 
protection). 


















144 


BKITISH INDIA. 






tides of food. Two erops of rice 
whici the leaves are wilted and partially . , 

dried. are raised every j^ear. 

India raises vast quantities of cotton, whidi is the principal material 
for clothing. Many modern manufacturing industries have been estab¬ 
lished which utiUze the raw products of the country. There are many 
cotton mills, besides jute, woolen, and jiaper mills. 

Opium is made from the poppy, and the cultivation of this plant is an 
important branch of industry. It is largely chewed and smoked by 

the Chinese, Japanese, and 
the inhabitants of the East 
India Islands. 

flute is used in making 
gunny - bags, in which 
many of the products of 
India are packed. It is 
largely used also in manu¬ 
facturing carpets. 

4. The Commerce of 
India is immense. A 
great maritime trade is 
carried on with England 
Making tiles at Mysore. China, and an im¬ 

portant caravan traffic with central and western Asia. 

Internal commerce is rapidly developing by the aid of the rail¬ 
ways that connect the principal cities and seaports. The large 
rivers are navigated by steamers. 


Bathing ghat at Calcutta. 


A machine for curhng tea. 


Interior of a tea house. 


tea for 

Calcutta. 

They were formerly noted for their 
skill in the manufacture of textile 
fabrics. 

Tlie mu.slins of Dacca, the brocades of Benares, the embroideries of 
Delhi, long rivalled the products of the finest modern machinery. 
Tlie shawls of Kashmir are still unsurpassed. 

More than two thousand years ago India was the seat of an empire 
of vast wealth. Its wonderful antiquities and magnificent ruins, its 
extraordinary poetical and religious literature, tell in eloquent lan¬ 
guage of the grandeur of the past. 

European civilization is now rapidly extendmg over the country. 


The leading religions are Brahmanism and Mohammedanism. 
About two millions of the people have become Christians. 


6. Government. —The King of England is “Emperor of 
India,” and rules through a govern or-general. 


L,XIX. BRITISH ASIA. 

1. British Asia chiefly com¬ 
prises the great peninsula of 
India, together with Burma, Ba¬ 
luchistan, Straits • Settlements, 

Aden, Hong Kong, and Ceylon, 

Cyprus, and other islands. 

2. India.— Cn the northern 
border we find the vast range 
of the Himalaya IVlountains. 

At their southern base lie the 
great plains of the Indus and Ganges, one of the richest and 
most populous regions in the world. (See Physical Map, p. 135.) 

Still farther to the south rises the jdateau of the Dekkan. 

3. Productions. —The mineral wealth of India is not large. 

Iron, petroleum, gold, and preciou-s stones are, however, found in con¬ 
siderable abundance, and much coal is mined. 

The great productions of the country are agricultural. They 
are rice, millet, wheat, cotton, jute, silk, opium, indigo, tea, sugar, 
tobacco, and live stock. 

Millet and rice are the chief ar- 


The country is traversed by a net¬ 
work of navigable and irrigating 
canals, some of which are thou' 
sands of miles in length. 

The chief exports are jute, 
cotton, rice, oil-seeds, hides, in¬ 
digo, tea, wheat, opium, wool, 
teak wood, lac, and coffee. Cot¬ 
ton cloth and metal products are 
the largest imports. 

Near Darjeeling, 8.000 feet above the sea. The mountains in the distance are the highest Foi agCS th^ tiade of Illdij^Wa^the 
summits nf the Himalayas. * ' — - . 




richest traffic of the world. The Eng¬ 
lish East India Company, having grown rich and powerful through 
its monopoly of this trade, achieved the splendid conquest which gave 
to England this most valuable of her possessions. 

5. The Inhabitants number about 315,000,000. They are 
genei’ally known as Hindus, th ough there is great diversity o f 
race, language, manners, and 
customs among them. 























• INDIA, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, AND CEYLON. 


145 



The cUy of Lucknow. 


The country is divided into twelve Presidencies, of wliicli the most 
important are those of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, and the Northwest 
Provinces, each of which has a British Governor or President, sub¬ 
ject to a Governor Genei'al and Council appointed by the British 
Government. 


tea, and petroleum are the leading exports. Rangoon is the chiei 
commercial town. Assam is a region of fruitful fields, orchards, 
and tea gardens. 



View of the harbor at Bombay, a city of over 800,000 population. 


9. The Straits Settlements consist of iVIalakka, Penang, and 
Singapore, with several protected native states. 




7. Cities. — r>elhi is the capital of British India and tlie resi¬ 
dence of the Governor-General. 

Delhi was also the capital of the 
ancient Mogul sovereignty. Its 
ruins cover forty-five square miles. 

It has a large trade in jewelry and 
cotton goods. Calcutta, the larg¬ 
est city of India, is the chief com¬ 
mercial city and seaport. 

Bombay is noted for its splendid 
harbor. It is the great cotton 
port. Madras is an iinjDortant 
center of foreign trade. 

Murshedabad manufactures silks, 
carpets, and embroidery. Patna 
is the emporium of the trade in 
opium, indigo, and rice. 

Benares, with its thousand Hindu 

temples and more than 300 The city of Peshawar, the terminus of therailway leading to Afghanistan and to be buUt to Kabul. 
mosques, is the most sacred city of the Hindus, and their chief seat 
of learning. 

The Jumna and the Ganges are rivers sacred to all Brahmans. They 
meet at Allahabad (God’s House), where multitudes of pilgrims go 
to bathe. 

Lucknow, with its monmnents, domes, and airy palaces, is like 
a fairy city. 

In quelling the Indian mutiny of 1857, the heroic Havelock made it 


Singapore is one of the leading tin markets of the world. It is an Eng¬ 
lish town, on an island at the end of 
the Malay peninsula. Its fortifica¬ 
tions command the Strait of Malakka, 
which is the great thoroughfare for 
steamers that ply between India and 
China. 

10. Ceylon is a fertile and 
populous island, famous for its 
tea, its coffee, its pearl fisheries, 
its cinnamon groves, and plum¬ 
bago. 

Tea is the most important production 
and is of the finest quality. Pearls 
are found inside tlie shell of the pearl- 
oyster. Cinnamon is the bark of a 
kind of laurel. The cinnamon and 
coffee tree gi'ow wild upon the island. 
Cinchona, cacao, and cocoanuts are 
also exported. 

Colombo is the capital and chief port for foreign trade. 

11. On the slopes of the Himalayas are the independent states 
Nepal and Bluitau and the native principality of Kashmir. 

Kashmir is celebrated for its floating gardens, its roses, and its 
fine shawls woven from the wool of the Kashmir goat. 


Weaving rugs in India. Notice the figures in the part already woven. 

famous in Anglo-Indian history. (Read the history of this famous 
mutiny.) 

8. Burma and Assam are the easternmost provinces of India. 
The productions of Burma resemble those of India. Teak, timber. 


Review Topics. —What does british Asia comprise? India. Physical fea¬ 
tures. Mineral wealth. Products. Rice. Cotton. The sugar crop Opium. 
Jute. Maritime commerce. Caravan trade. Internal commerce. Canals. Chief 
exports. Imports. The East India Company. Inhabitants. Their skill. Con¬ 
dition of India one hundred years ago. Religions. Government. How is the 
country divided? Calcutta. Bombay. Madras. Mui'shedabad. Patna. Benares. 
Allahabad. Delhi. Lucknow. Burma. Productions. Chief town. As.sam. 
Straits Settlements. Singapore. Ceylon. Products. Independent states. 




































146 


AFGHANISTAN, BALUCHISTAN, AND PERSIA. 


LXXI. AFGHANISTAN, BALUCHISTAN, PEKSIA, 
AND ARABIA. 

1. Afghanistan and Baluchistan.—Afghanistan and Balu¬ 
chistan occu]\y the eastern portion of the Plateau of Iran, and 
are for the most part desert. Some of the mountain valleys are, 
however, well watered and fertile. 

Tliese valleys are 
inhabited by a- set¬ 
tled population, 
but the country 
generally is peo¬ 
pled by warlike 
nomads, who raise 
camels, horses, 
goats, and sheep 
on the good pas¬ 
ture lands. 
Baluchistan is now 
under the admin¬ 
istrative control 
of Great Britain. 
The chief caravan routes between India and western Asia lie 
through this region, Avhich is separated from India by the Sulai- 
man and Hala mountains. 




3. Productions.—Silk is the most important production. 
The other products are cotton, tobacco, opium, drugs, wool, wine, 
minerals, naphtha, salt, and the turquoise. 


The artisan.s of Persia are skilled in various branches of industry, es¬ 
pecially in the manufacture of silks, shawls, carpets, and small-arms. 
The chief exports are cotton, silk and silkworm eggs, opium, 
carpets, dried fruits, and pearls. 


In these dry countries the fruits, such as grapes, peaches, pears, 
apricots, nectarines, plums, cherries, figs, pomegranates, and mel¬ 
ons—both canteloupes and watermelons—are unsurpassed. 




The two great passes through these mountains, the Kliaihar Pass 
leading to Kabul, and the Bolaii leading into Baluchistan, may 
be called the northwestern gates of India. The Bolan Pass is a wild 
gorge about fifty miles loTig, walled in by precipitous rocks. In 1839 
acolumnof the 
British army 
took six days 
to traverse it. 

The principal 
depots of the 
caravan trade 
are Kabul, He¬ 
rat, Kandahar, 
and Khelat. Ka¬ 
bul, on the Ka¬ 
bul river, is the Women of the working class weaving a Persian carpeL 

capital of Afghanistan, Khelat of Baluchistan. 

England and Russia are rivals for the control of the commerce of Persia 
and Afghanistan. England has built railroads to New Chaman and 
Peshawar in the south, and a Russian road has nearly reached Herat. 

2. Persia.—Persia occupies the western part of the Plateau 
of Iran. 

It is a dry country, requiring for the most part artificial irriga¬ 
tion ; but wherev^er there is water, the hills 
and valleys are clothed Avith Avaving wheat 
or fragrant roses, and the pastures are cov¬ 
ered Avith flocks and herds. 

Water is conAmyed to the plains from the moun¬ 
tain springs or streams by long underground 
aqueducts called kenats. 

The climate of Persia generally is one of 
great extremes. The summers are intensely 
hot, the Avinters bitterly cold. The region 
bordering the Caspian Sea has a compara¬ 
tively mild climate. 


A port in Persia on the Caspian Sea where caravans from Teheran 
and other Persiayi cities meet. Notice the packages of merchandise 
piled up in front of the warehouses and the Persians watching the 
steamer as it approaches. 


4. Govern¬ 
ment.—Persia is 
one of the old¬ 
est monarchies in 
the Avorld. The 
ruler is called the 
Shah, and is a 
Mohammedan. 

Western civiliza¬ 
tion is finding 
its way into this 
country. Tele¬ 
graphs and post- 
otfices have been 
introduced. 

5. Cities.— 
Teheran is the 
capital. Tabriz 

is an important center of caravan trade between Persia and 
India on the one hand and Turkey and Russia on the other. 
Ispahan, once the capital, is an important center of trade. 

Meshed, the holy city, manufactures carpets and shawls; Bushireon 
the Persian Gulf, has important commerce with European countries. 

6. Arabia.— Ara¬ 
bia is a great plateau. 
It has three natural 
divisions, nearly equal 
in size: a central 
mountainous region; 
a desert belt encir¬ 
cling this; a narroAV 
coast plain. 

Central Arabia con¬ 
tains many towns and 
villages. Its val leys are 
exceedingly productive. 






A Persian-village.—The men and women are weaving mats* 





















ARABIA AND ASIATIC TURKEY. 


147 


"1 






The tlesert belt 
has a scanty 
vegetation 
which furnislu's 
food for the 
goats and cam¬ 
els of the Bed¬ 
ouin or wan¬ 
dering Arabs. 

Here and then" 
groves of the 
date-palm mark 
the fertile spots, 

or oases. The ‘X ^‘ome o/<iii Ar<iJi/<imih/0/Hfilouin. T/ie man in weaviii(/ 
j . . r, cfoth for (t fenf. The n'otnon in ftpinning. 

desert is often ' 

swept by the dry and scorching wind which is called the simoon. 

The coast plain contains fertile disti’icts which yield coffee, dates, figs, 
grapes, fragrant gums, and spices in great profusion. 

The exports are coffee, date.s, camels, horses, pearls, and wool. 

<)ff the island of 
Bahrein, in the 
Persian Gulf, is 
one of the most 
noted pearl 
fisheries in 
the world. 

7. Govern¬ 
ment.— Arabia 
is divided into 
several petty 








Betk/ehem. 

states under .separate rulers. 

Nedjed, Shomer, and 
Oman are the most impor¬ 
tant. Yemen and Hedjaz, 
fertile di.stricts on the west¬ 
ern coast, are native king¬ 
doms. Hedjaz contains tlu^ 

holy cities of the Alohaiu- On the Ixmtn of t/ie /Hrer Jordan 

medans— Mekka, the birth-place of “ the prophet,” and Medina, 
his burial [)lace. 

Every .Mohammedan tries to make a pilgrimage to these cities once in 
his life. Enormous caravans visit them every year. The pilgrims 
come from motives of religion and commerce. Traders from Moham¬ 
medan countries meet at Mekka and exchange their commodities. 

Sana in Y'emen is famed for its trade in Mocha coffee. Mascat, the 
capital of Oman, is an important center of commerce. 


Ileview Topics. —M hat countries occupy the eastern part of the Plateau of 
Iran? Describe the country and inhabitants. Caravan route.s. Mountain 
pa.sses. Bolan Pa.ss. Chief cities. What country occupies the western part 
of Iran? Describe it. Kenats. Climate. Productions. Arti.sans of Persia. 
Chief exports. Fruits. Governnicnt. Mo<lern civilization. Teheran. Tabriz. 
Ispahan. What is Arabia? Natural divisions? How much of the country 
does each division occupy? Central Arabia. De.sert belt. Coast plain. 
Exports. For what is Bahrein noted? How is Arabia governed? Principal 
states. Yemen and 
Hedjaz. Mekka. 

Medina. Pilgrimages. 

Sana. IMascat. 

LXXll. TUR¬ 
KEY, IRAQ, 

SYRIA, AN1> 

PALESTINE. 

1. Turkey.— 

The Turkish pos-’ 
sessions in Asia oc¬ 
cupy the Anatolian 
plateau of Asia Mi¬ 
nor. The interior 
of the plateau is 
mountainous and 
arid. It becomes 
higher and more arid towards the east. There are fertile valleys, 
where the vine, olive, mulberry, poppy, cotton, wheat, tobacco, and 
fruits grow, yielding large crops. Sheep and goats are raised for 
their wool, hair, and hides. 

The Turks are Mongolians. Hitherto, their government has 
kept the people in ignorance and poverty. The capital of 
the present Turki.sh republic is Angora. Smyrna is the 
chief port of Turkey in Asia. 

2. Iraq, the lowland along the Tigris and Euphrates 
rivers, is now under Bidtish control. It is, when 
irrigated, as productive as any land in the world. 
Dates, cotton, and wheat are the main crops. Bagdad 
is the principal city. 

3. Syria and Palestine, on the Mediterranean 
coast, have a population of Arabs, Turks, .lews, 

Syrians, Armenians, and Greeks, 
respectively under French and 
British protection. 


•JeruHulem. 


PALESTINE 

SCALE OF MILES 


\tA '-^Caesarea 
Philippi 

KadesHl*} ' 

Titter* 0/ 
Mprom, 

-v' \ / ^ 

lo^ethsaida 


A rallty in the moxinUiimf of Arahia. 


^ Jiberi% l^alilee 


S A 'm'a k i a ,, . 

Sfebaste ^ t • 

SWhem^ i-^ 

'MT.OlLEAO 

Shiloh y 

D E f IDibhath 

Mf.OF OLIVES ■*. q , A’ 

^ // L 

/ / Bethlerfem ^ 

foA^calon Y# ^ 

fvzr ; 

' '■ (^Engedi 

I'-D U m'/E A 

> I 


^ I , 

ijabbath ^loab 


Palestine, or the Holy Land, is 
famous as the scene of many events 
recorded in the Bible. Much of the 
surface along the Mediterranean is 
level, but the interior of the country is 
mountainous. East of the mountains 
are the Sea of Galilee, the River 
Jordan, and the Dead Sea. 

Here are Jerusalem, the an¬ 
cient caj)ital of the .Jewish na¬ 
tion; Bethlebem, the birthplacte 
of Jesus, Betliauy, Nazareth, 
and many other jdaces; all hav¬ 
ing sacred memories of the life 
and teachings of Christ. 

Sponge and coral fisheries on the 
coast are important sources of Syrian 
commerce. 










































SVKl A.—SIBERIA. 


Us 




Smyrna, the principal seaport of Asia Minor. 

Sponges are animal productions, living in water from 30 to 150 feet 
deep, and attached to rocks or shells. They are gathered by divers. 

1>amascus, in Syria, is the oldest city known, and the center of 
a great caravan trade. Beirut, on the Mediterranean, is the port 
of Damascus. Aleppo is a great rendezvous of caravans from 
Persia and India. 

Review Topics. —^What does Asiatic Turkey include? Surface of Asia 
Minor. Products. People. Government. Iraq. Products. Syria and 
Palestine. Population. Government. The Holy Land. Smyrna and Damascus. 
Aleppo. Beirut. Jerusalem. 

LXXIII. ASIATIC RUSSIA. 

1. Asiatic Russia. — Asiatic Russia embraces all of northern 
Asia, and extends from the Black Sea to the Pacific Dcean. 

It includes the vast area of Siberia, Kirghiz, and Turkestan. 

2. Siberia.— 

Siberia is larger 
than all Europe, 
while its popu¬ 
lation is only a 
little more than 
that of Belgium. 

3. Surface.— 

More than half of 
Siberia lies in the 
great northern 

plain. That part Siberian railway station. 

bordering the Arctic Ocean is a level swamp, called the tundras. 


Amur, -which cuts its Avay through the mountains and flows into 
the Okhotsk Sea. 

These rivers are all iiavigablc, but their mouths being frozen over for 
the greater part of the year they are of iu> value to foreign com¬ 
merce. Their upper courses, connecting canals and Lake Baikal, 
furnish waterways for local trade in the interior. 

6. Products.—The ])roducts are small in comparison tvith the 
vast extent of the country. 

The forests are the homes of fur-hearing animals, and their furs are 
an ini])ortant product. 

Agriculture.—The southern half of the great plain is a rich agricul¬ 
tural region, which has developed rapidly since the building of the 
railroads. Large crops of wdieat, rye, and oats are produced; on the 
steppes, the great grazing region, are vast numbers of sheep, horses, 
cattle, and camels. 

Minerals.—The mountain regions of Siberia are rich in emeralds, 
rubies, gold, silver, platinum, copper, and iron. The mines, as a 
rule, are worked by convicts, most of whom have been sent from 
Russia in Europe. 

The inanufactures are not important. They include metals, woolen 

goods, leather, and 
lumber products. 

7. Population. 

—The population 
at one time con¬ 
sisted chiefly of 
exiles and convicts 
from Russia, gov¬ 
ernment officers, 
and a few barbar¬ 
ous natives. Since 

The first train on the Siberian railway. the building of the 

railroads several million persons have come in from Russia. 

The Kirghiz of the steppes live in tents and roam from place to place 
with their flocks and herds. They are ignorant but hospitable. 

8. Trade. —The exports are furs, the products of the mines, 
and fossil ivory, which is found all over northern Siberia. 

This ivory is the tusks of animals called mammoths, which became 
extinct before the history of man begins. They were twice as large 
as an elephant and ^vere covered with wool and long hair. Not long 
ago the body of one of these animals was found frozen up in ice, 
where it had been preserved for ages. The flesh was in such good 
condition that a party of explorers cut it up and fed it to their dogs. 


The mouths of the great rivers that cross this region freeze very early 
every winter while the water is still flowing in their upper courses. 
This floods the tundras, and a little later they freeze, making a solid 
ice sheet over which the natives travel on sledges. In summer the 
ice thaws and the tundras become impassable swamps overgrown 
with coarse grass. 

The central part is rolling and covered with forests which are 
a part of a great forest belt extending from the Baltic to the 
Pacific. The southwestern part consists of a low and dry plateau 
called the .steppes. Southern and eastern Siberia lie in the 
mountain region of the continent. 

4. Climate. —The climate in the north is intensely cold ; in 
the central and southern sections the winters are not so cold, 
and the summer heat is intense. 

5. Rivers.— The chief rivers are the Ob, the Yenisei, and the 
Lena, which cross the central plain from south to north, and the 


Most of the imports come from Russia; hut we sell Siberia 


farming utensils and steel. 

Trade Route. —An extensive trade is carried on between Peking and 



Siberian farming scene. 























SIBP:RIA.—TIUNSCAUCASIA AND TURKESTAN. 


149 





Petrograd through Siberia. 
Formerly tlie supply of tea for 
Russia was transported ou the 
backs of camels from Peking to 
Maimatchiu and Kiakhta, and 
thence through Irkutsk, Tomsk, 
and Tobolsk to Petrograd by 
boats on the rivers in sum¬ 
mer, and in winter by sledges 
drawn by dogs or reimleer. The 
transit occupied six months. 
The Trans-Siberian railroad has 
changed all this. (See Trade 
Chart, p. 160.) 


View of the harbor of Vladivostok. 

9. Cities. —Vladivo.stok, the only seaport of Siberia, is the 
eastern terminus of the great railway across the continent. It 
has a good harbor, which is kept open by huge steamers built to 
break the ice. Our trade with the country goes through that port. 

Irkutsk is the chief city of Eastern Siberia; Tomsk of Western. 

Barnaul is a large mining town containing 
one himdred and twenty smelting furnaces. 

Tiumen is extensively engaged in the manu¬ 
facture of Russia leather and woolen fabrics. 

Omsk and Tobolsk are important towns. 


Making rnolin strings in the old city of Bokhara. 

10. Turkestan embraces the larger por¬ 
tion of the territory lying between the 
('aspian Sea and the Altai Mountains, and 
extending .south of Afghanistan and the north¬ 
ern border of British India. 




from the \'olga and from the 
Caspian Sea and has established 
a system of irrigation. These 
have increased the productions 
of the section, and a million and 
a half bales of cotton are shipped 
to Russia annually. Large quan¬ 
tities of silk and wool are ex¬ 
ported. 

12. Population. — The popu¬ 
lation is made iij) of many races, 
most of whom l)elong to the Mongolian family. The Kirghiz, 
the Kalmuks, Tatars, and some others lead a wandering life. 
Others live in towns and on farms. 

13. Government. —The whole country is controlled by 
Russia, but Bokhara and Khiva are protected states under native 
rulers who pay an annual tribute to Russia. 


Cities.— Tashkent, the chief city of Turkestan, 
is the terminus of two railroads. It is a very old 
city and a great trade center. 

Bokhara, on the railroad, is a famous seat of Mo¬ 
hammedan learning and the center of a caravan 
trade. It is famous for its ornamental leather. 

Khiva is the center of a grazing and cotton section. 
All these cities manufacture cotton, silk, and 
leather goods. 

Samarkand was the capital of Timour the Lame, 
or Tamerlane, the Tatar conqueror of west¬ 
ern Asia. He conquered Syria, Russia, and 
overran India as far as Delhi. He defeated the 


Caravan crossing the great desert of Russian Turkestan. 

Turkish Sultan of 


It is dry and includes deserts of sand dunes. The river valleys are 
fertile, and when water can be found for irrigation, the land pro¬ 
duces large crops of corn, wheat, and cotton. 

11. Products. —Russia has built railroads into the country 


Making pottery at Bokhara. 


Tiflis, the capital of Georgia. 


Constantinople in 
1402, and after¬ 
ward died while 
preparing for the 
conquest of China. 

14. Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan are Russian posses¬ 
sions, comprising most of the territory south of the ('aucasus Moun¬ 
tains. The valleys ai’c fertile. The principal prodiiet.s are the 
mulberry, the vine, and cotton. 

The people of Georgia, who are celebrated for their handsome features, 
belong to the Tatar {tah'tar) race. They are skilled in the manufac¬ 
ture of silks, carpets, and metal goods. Tifli.s is the capital and chief 
city of Georgia. 

The region about Baku, in Azerbaijan, is famous for its wells of 
petroleum. There are many refineries, and the oil is sent out to all 
parts of Europe and Asia. 

Review Topics. — A.siatic Russia. Divisions. Siberia. Northern portion. 
Central. Southern. Products. Minerals. People. Occupation. Trade. Cities 
and towns. Georgia. Azerbaijan. Products. People. Tifli.s. Baku. Petroleum. 
Turkestan. Surface. Products. People. Government. Cities. 


























AFRICA. 




LXXI. PHYSICAr. FKATURPS. 

1. Africa, chierty in the Torrid Zone, is noted for its deserts, 
its magniticent rivers, luxuriant vegetation, and barbarous races. 

Tliis continent I'anks next to Asia in size and is joined to it by the 
narrow isthmus of Suez. Its long coast line, unlike that of Europe, 
has few indentations. 

2. Surface. —Africa is a vast ])lateau from 1,5UU to 5,000 feet 
liigh, and surrounded by a belt of low, marshy, malarious land, 
varying in width from a few miles to two hundred. 


The South African plateau in Cape of Good Hope, 

Prodnetioiis.— What tropical fruits are found in tlie northern part 
of Africa? In what j)arts are palm trees found? What farm products 
are raised in Egypt? In South Africa? In what parts do coffee and cot 
ton flourish? Where is ivory found? What section pi’oduces cloves? 
Sugar? Ebony? Gold? Gums? In what parts is the elephant found? 
What animals are common in the Siidan region? What minerals are 
found in the southern pai-t? In the desert? What are the productions of 
Madagascar? Of the Azores and Canary Islands? Of Socotra Island? 
Of Mauritius and Reunion Islands? In what section is the tsetse fly 
found? The crocodile? The lion? Monkeys and parrots? The rhinoceros? 
What regions raise sheep and goats? Cattle? 


The Atlas mountaiiis in Algeria. 


The Libyan Desert near Cairo, showing the 
great pyramids at Ghizch. 


MAP STUl>IES.-Whatseaon 
the north? On the northeast? What 
connects these two seas? In what 
latitude is Africa? What parallel 
cros.ses the northern part? What 
ca])e forms the eastern extremity? 

The southern? The western? Where 
does .Africa approach nearest tlie 
mainland of Europe? What strait 
separates it fi-om Europe? Where is 
the Cape of Good Hope ? What large 
island off the eastern coast of Africa ? 

What groups of islands northwest ? 

What islands in the Gulf of Guinea ? 

.\t the mouth of the Gulf of Aden ? Off the eastern coast ? Is the coast 
line of Africa regular or indented ? What gulfs do you find on the northern 
coast ? WTiat bays on the eastern ? On the western ? What strait con¬ 
nects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden ? 

Siirfaee.—Where are the African highlands? What is their direction ? 
What lakes do they contain? What three great rivers have their sources 
in these? What mountains along the northern coast? Along the south¬ 
ern coast? What jdateau north of the Gulf of Guinea? Where are the 
Cameroon Mountains? AVhat desert region in the south? In the north¬ 
east? Where is the Sahara or Great desert? What two high mountains 
near the equator? 

Ijiikes aii<l Rivers.—Which is the longest river in Africa? "Which 
two flow into the Atlantic? Describe the course of the Nile. Name four 
large lakes south of the ecpiator? What river drains central Africa? 
(There are falls and rapids in its lower course around which a railroad has 
been built.) Where is Lake Chad? W'^hy has it no outlet? De.scribe the 
()range river. The Vaal. The Senegal. The Limpopo. W^hat trib¬ 
utaries has the Nile? In what plateau do they ri.se? 

Climate.—In what zones is Africa? In wdiat wind belts? Along 
which coast are the highest mountains? How does this affect the climate 
of the interior? Explain why the northern part of Africa has little 
rain. Account for the Kalahari desert. W^hat parts of Africa are in 
reach of the westerly winds (see wind chart, p. 16t))? What of the 
rainfall in these parts? Why is northeastern Africa desert, while south¬ 
eastern Africa has abundance of rain? 


Tlie highest 
inoiiiitnins are 

situated eastward 
and westward of 
Victoria Xyanza. 

On tlie west is 
Alount Ruwen- 
zori, about 19,boo 
.feet high, the 
! highest peak of 
several w h i c h 

W ere anciently The Suez Canal. 

called the “ Mountains of the iMoon.” ()n the east are the peaks 
of Kenia and Kilimanjaro, more than 19,000 feet high. They 
are the highest in Africa, and are above the snow line. 

The other important ranges are the Atlas, on the north, the 
Kamerun, on the western coast, and the Snow Mountains on 
the south. 

The peak of Teneriffe is a celebrated volcano on one of the 
Canary Islands; it is 12,1S2 feet high, and the winds at the toj) 

and bottom often blow in con¬ 
trary directions. 

3. Deserts.—The great Desert 
of Sahara, the Libyan and Nubian 
deserts in the north, and the 
Kalahari Desert in the south, 
though barren themselves, con¬ 
tribute largely to the productive¬ 
ness of the more favored portions 
of the continent. 

The Atlantic slopes and the region 


150 

















30 Longitude 20 


West 


10 Longitude 20 


from 


40 Greenwich 50 


Strait of Gibraltar 

CAPE SPA()TEL 


liul/ of Uabe» 


'"Wheat®' 

ANTIMONY 


/Madeira 


GYPSUM 


'Afttelop'e 


•'Acilcia' 


iSuez 

U’anai 


Jackal 


COPPER 


Hyena 
\ Patfois 


SALT 

Gazelle af" 


ALABASTER 
’ GVPSUM^.^^^^ 


ji^/i^^^Gazelle 
, - Pa^ilher 


'CANARY ISLES- ^ 0 
iTySjIainiO 
/Fi^uiCs 
.CAPE aOJADOR, 


GOLD 


‘■reON 


1 S.YENITCVV 

Crocqd il_e 

~ ~ 1 /^MERaTiTO 

•r TMT L / Ibis 

Millet / NUBIAN 


BASALT 


TROPin-OF. CANCER 


SALT 


SILVER ' 


SILVER 


VERDE 


L.Chad 


Parrots 


GiralTe 


Panther' 


obacco 

Vforloise 


!Mtter-ti'ee 

Hippopotamus, 


X. 7uua 


aboon ^ 


*^5Dottoia 


Chimpanzee 

'■M&p^ove 


GOLD 


Gums 

Elephant^ 


sChelah 


Elephant 


Rubber 


Cinnamon 
SALT chimpanzee 


Rioe 

i 

K imerun Mts. 

\ Gorilla-^ 
j Peanuts 

L Rubbecr, 


jjbo>n 


Maku, 


Rudolf L 


3ALMAS 


Fernando Po I. if > 
(tfp.) Bight of 
Bmfra 


\lb4rt Hyanza 


Mt. Ruwenzorf^ 


Rubber 


et.Thomaa \,^ 


Kenia 


ailk-tr 


EQUATOR 


EQUATOR' 


Allt -t Edward yya 


Victori 

'yanz^ 


Annobon f, ^ 

IBp.) 


Wart-hog* 

Mt. Kilimanjaro 


o/PoMupine^-^ 

^ Stanley Pool Y 

iron[^, ' 

Rubber 




M ^ 

L.Tang^yika 


C )RAL 

^ Zanzibar i« 

Tortoise 

^(Jloves 

iopal 


A^onkey 


Ascension I 

ilo Qr.Br.) 


SALT 


iC.OELQADO 


JjCOMORRO 


AMBER 

COALA 


^^angweolo' 

Rhinoceros 


hake Nyasa 


AMBER 


Zebra 


Allpe 


GOL0 


IRON 


Rubber 


amus 


•A CAPE FRIO 


Vicfortii Fallt 


Zebra 


uga'r lilASCAREKfe 18. 


L.Rgami 


Reunion Oi 
3/ BourborG 
/ Suoair 


-TROPIC -OF-\ CAPRICORN 


ALAHARI 

DESERT 


aou) 


DklagoQ Bay 


0. STsMARV 


AFRICA 

PHYSICAL MAP 


St.Lucta Bay 


patue 

vXrdp^ ^BuiTalo 


SCALE OF MILES 


Salt 


CAPE OF QOOO HOPEl/^ 
LEAD ' 
CAPE AQULHA8 


IOWA 


COAL 


Huff 

Dark buff 


Low Plateau 
High Plateau 


Plains 
how lands 


Green 
Dark green 


•tS / Antarctx 





























































































































































































152 


AFKICA: PHYSICAL FEATUKES. 


of the Cape owe their fertility to these deserts. The hot sun so rarefies 
the air that vapor-laden winds are drawn in from the sea. Rising 
to the cool tops of the coast mountains, the vapor is condensed and 
yields a considerable rainfall. 

4. Rivers and Lakes.—Africa is the driest of the continents. 
There are, however, great rivers, such as the Nile, the Niger, 
the Congo, and the Zambezi. The Nile and the Congo are the 
most imjmrtant, and are among the longest in the Avorld. 



The Congo is the largest river in Africa, from eight to ten times broader 
than the Mississippi. With its tributaries it affords about four 
thousand miles of navigable waterways. 

Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa are among the largest lake.s in the 
world. Lake Victoria is drained by the Nile, Lake Tanganyika 
by the Congo. 

5. Climate.—Africa is the hottest of all the continents. The 
climate, however, varies in different parts. 

The northern portion lies in the region of the northeast trade- 
winds; and these, coming from the dry plateau of Arabia, are 
rainless and hot. Eggs may be baked in the sands of Nubia. 

Central and Southern Africa are largely in the region of the 
southeast trades. These come from the Indian Ocean and are 
laden Avith moisture, Avhich is condensed above the snowy moun¬ 
tains of equatorial Africa, and, falling as rain or snow, feeds the 
great lakes and riA^ers of the continent. 

6. Vegetation. The Equatorial regions of Africa form a belt 
of fertile country, marked by luxuriant tropical vegetation, sim¬ 
ilar to that of South America. 


The River Nile. 

.MAP STUDIES.— What two 
nations control the larger part of 
Africa? What colonies border the 
Gulf of Guinea? TlieRedSea? The 
Mediterranean? What lakes border 
Tanganyika Territory? In which 
part are the most railroads? What 
colonies border the Indian Ocean? 

What colony in the central part of 
.Africa? Through what countries 
does the Nile pass ? The Zambezi? 

The Niger? What countries are 
separated by the Congo river? 

Kegioii of the Nile. —What is the source of the Nile ? What 
possession on the west of Egypt ? On the south ? What cities at the 
extremities of the Suez Canal? Where is Alexandria? Damietta? 
Cairo? Assouan? Near Avhat circle is the first catai’act of the Nile? 
What important city at the junction of the two Niles? How could you 
travel from Khartum to Cairo? Fi’om Berber to Suakin? What are 
the products of the upper Nile region? What cities in the Egyptian 
Sudan? Where is Fashoda? El Fasher? What is the capital? 
Describe the surface of Aby.ssinia. What is the capital? Locate Harar. 
With what seaport is it connected? 

The Barbary State.s. — Which three states belong to France? Which 
of these states belongs to Italy ? What mountains cross Morocco and 
.\lgeria? Hoav do they affect the climate? Where is Tunis? Wliat 
caraAmn routes center at Tripoli? Through what oasis do tliey lead? 
Name the capital of each Barbary State. Locate Tangier, Oran, Constan¬ 
tine, Mui'zuk, and Mekinez. 

The Saliara, Sudan, and Belgian Congo. —What is the 
extent of the Sahara from east to AA’est? From north to south? How 
does it compare in size Avith the United States? Name some of its oases. 
Which of them produce salt? What town north of the bend of the 
Niger? What caravan route passes through it? To what nations does 
the Sudan belong? What waters form part of the boundary of the Bel¬ 
gian Congo ? What branches of the Congo pass through it ? Where 
are its highlands ? What is its capital and seaport ? 

The Western Coast. —Name the British colonies on this coast. 
The French. The Portuguese. Name the capital of each colony. 
Locate Lagos, Bathurst, Loanda, Windhoek, Libreville, Monrovia, 
FreetoAAui, and St. Louis. What are the chief productions of the west¬ 
ern coast? 

Southern Africa. —To what nation does the greater part of it be¬ 
long ? What other nation controls part of it ? Name the British posses¬ 
sions in South Africa. What is the capital of Cape of Good Hope? Of 
the Transvaal? Of the Orange Free State? Where is Swakopmund? 


On each side of this broad belt 
are grass lands and prairie.s; 
those of the Sudan on the north, 
and on the south the country 
of the Zambezi. 

Beyond these again, both north 
and south, are the dry and 
sandy regions of the Sahara and 
Kalahari, AA'hile the extreme 



A view of the River Niger^ with native boats in the foreground. 

interior city is it connected ? Locate Johannesburg. Salisbury. Kimberley. 
Pretoria. Durban. Bloemfontein. 

Eastern Coast.—What colonies border on the Indian Ocean? On 
the Red Sea? On the Gulf of Aden? What city at the mouth of the Zam¬ 
bezi? What port on Delagoa Bay? Where is Sofala? Zomba? Mozam¬ 
bique? Dar-e-s-Salaam? Zanzibar? Juba? What French colony on the 
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb? What is the capital of Madagascar? 


CODNTRIES. 

Area in 
Sq Miles. 

Population. 

Countries. 

Area in 
Sq. Miles. 

Population. 

Morocco. 

Algeria. 

Tunis. 

Sahara, French.... 
Fr. West Africa. . . 
Fr. Somali Coast. . 
Fr. Equatorial Afr. 

Madagascar. 

Libia. 

Eritrea. 

Italian Somaliland. 

Liberia. 

Abyssinia. 

Rio de Oro, etc... . 

176,000 

343.600 
64,600 

1,944,000 

704,000 

6,000 

680.600 
228,600 
542,000 

42,500 

190,000 

36,800 

312,000 

82,000 

5,000,000 

5,801,000 

2,094,000 

695,000 

12,284,000 

208,000 

10,000,000 

3,545,000 

525,000 

450,000 

700,000 

1,500,000 

8,000,000 

706,900 

Belgian Congo.. .. 

Egypt. 

Anglo-Egyptian 

Sudan . 

Brit. Somaliland. . 

Kenya, etc. 

Uganda Prot. 

Tanganyika Ter,.. 

Nigeria. 

Gold Coast, etc . .. 
Union of So. .\fr... 
Other Br. S. .\fr... 

Angola, etc. 

Mozambique. 

947,000 

400,000 

1,014,000 

59.800 
247,000 
111,000 
384,200 
394,000 

88.800 
792,340 
313,900 

490.800 

295.800 

15,400,000 

13,387,000 

3,400,000 

300,000 

2,630,000 

3,072,000 

4,000,000 

17,300,000 

2,430,000 

6,926,000 

1,989,000 

4,120,000 

3,120,800 



A commercial station on the Congo River 
at Stanley Pool. 





























































10 A.M. 


11 


3 PvM. 


TIME when it is Noon on the Meridian of Greenwich and 6:52 A.M. on the Meridian of Washington 


12 Nooo 


1 


2 



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Greenwich iO 


Lod} itude 


fcJllexandfiai 


from 


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OF SUEZ 


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CANARY ISLES Ifni 

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adames 


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I ' 

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b Cisneros^ 
TROPie 


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ratrnn 


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Arab 


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FREE TOWN 


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finya 


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T^StMlty Pool 
LeonoldviUe 


MATfA L 
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( Jb Or. Sr.) 


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LOAND, 




C. Delgafto 


COMORRO 
! 4S. 


Longest Day 13 h 


HONA 

LAND 


Tlima] 


matave 


llaiirUlu» I 


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Bourltun 1.% 

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p^t.Litcia Boy 

ermaritzsurg 


Longest Day 11>^ b 


urban 


TOWN 


Elizabet^^ 


LaUof Ayree 


had^of Amet 


107 Washington .117 


from 


Longritude 97 













































































































































































































154 


AFPwICA: PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND INHABITANTS. 





northern and 
southern por¬ 
tions of the con¬ 
tinent are regions 
of extraordinary 
productiveness. 

On tlie Atlas 
range and the 
northern borders 
of the Sahara is 
the “land of the 
date,” and on 

A coconnut palm and other tropical vegetation in an African forest. highlands of 

Abyssinia are extensive foi'ests of the coffee-tree. The gigantic 
baobab, the acacia, oil-palin, sugar cane, cotfee, toba(;co, and cot¬ 
ton. are found from the Sahara to the Zambezi. 

The date-iialm sui)plies a large portion of the inhabitants witli food. 
The oil-palm yields palm oil, and the acacia produces 
gum-arabic. 

The palm is the most useful tree in the woidd It 
fui’iiishes timber and liber from which dwellings 
and clothing are made, as well as fruit, oil, and 
wine. 

7. Animals.—Strange and ferocious animals are 
found in great number and variety in Africa. 

It is the home of the elephant and rhinoceros, the 
lion and the leopard, the crocodile and hippopotamus, 
ajid those 
.strange ani¬ 
mals, the gor¬ 
illa and chim¬ 
panzee, that 
bear .sucb a 
strong resem¬ 
blance to the 
human form. 

The ostrich 
buries her 
eggs in the 
sands of the 
deserts ; the 
z e 1) !• a and 

giraffe, the antelope, and the swift¬ 
footed gnu, roam over the plains. 

A great plague of central and southern 
Africa is the tsetse fly, whose bite is some¬ 
times fatal to horses and cattle, and also 
causes the sleeping-sickness which at¬ 
tacks human beings. In all the region 
between the Sudan and Cape of Good 
Hofie, bales of goods and other merchan¬ 
dise are transported on the heads of 
negro carriers. Only to a very limited 
extent have roads been made on which 
beasts of burden could be used. 

8. Inhabitants. — The n o r t li e r ii 

jiortiou of the continent is inhabited by 
Berbers, Arabs or Moors, and Bgy ptians. Egyptians. 

The Smlaii and the region south of it, including the Congo 
Basin, is the “land of the blacks.” Some of them till the soil 
and raise cattle, others have skill in temjtering steel and working 
gold, but they are generally exceedingly ignorant and degraded. 
They believe in witchcraft and Avorship idols. 


Native village in Cameroon.—The 
natives are dressed for Sunday. 


South of the Zambezi river are found the Kaffii’s and Hottentots, 
and in the Kalahari De.sert the Bushmen, who live in caves like 
wild animals. It is said that the Bushmen cannot count beyond the 
number two. 

9. Political Geography. —Egypt has a native ruler or sul¬ 
tan. but the country is really under the control of the British. 
Nearly all the rest of Africa is owned or controlled by other 
European governments. 

Abyssinia is governed by its own absolute king. The Belgian 
Congo is governed as a colonial jms.session of Belgium. Liberia 
is an independent negro republic. Regions controlled and pro¬ 
tected bj- European countries are described as “protectorates” or 
“spheres of ijifluence.” 

Less than 350,000 square miles of African territory, out of a 
total of eleven and a half million, are non-European. 

Review Topics. —Location 
of Africa. Rank. Coa.st line. f>ur- 
face. Highest mountain ranges. 
Otlier important ranges. Deserts. 
Kffect on climate. How does Africa 
compare with the other continents 
in regard to moisture ? What is 
said of the Nile and the Congo ? 
Climate of northern portion. Cli¬ 
mate of Central and Southern 
Africa. Vegetation in the e(|ua- 
torial I’egions. In the Sudan and 
the Zambezi countries. Abyssinia. 
Products. The date-palm. The oil- 
palm. The acacia. Animals of 
Afi’ica. Inhabitants. Government. 
What States are independent ? Which of these is a king¬ 
dom ? Which state is a republic ? 

LXXV. REGION OP THE NILE. 

1. Egypt. —Egypt occupies the lower part of 
the Nile valley. The upjier valley, south of the 
22d parallel, is governed jointly by England and 
Egypt. It is called the Anght-Egryptiaii Sudan, 
and is inhabited mainly by native Arabs. 

An uprising was provoked among them in 1882, by the 
attempts of the Egyptians to take possession of the country. 
Under a leader whom they called the “ Mahdi,” or prophet, 
the Arabs routed an Egyptian army and cut off aud mas¬ 
sacred General Gordon and bis men at Khartum. But the 
Mahdi was defeated aud killed in 1898 by an aiany under 
General Kitchener, and the entire Nile valley is now under 
the contind of England and Egy])t. 

2. The Nile. 

—The Valley of 
the Nile is in a 
rainless region. 

Except in the 
Delta, rain rare¬ 
ly falls, and a 
cloud is seldom seen. 

For more than 1.200 
miles in its lower 
course the Nile does 
not receive a single 


tributary. 


Manufacture of water-jars. Mile boats carrying them to market. 
































EGYPT, THE EGYPTIAN SUDAN, AND ABYSSINIA. 


155 






At certain seasons, however, 
among the mountains of Abyssinia 
and the equatorial region, from 
2,000 to 3,000 miles distant, the 
rains pour down in torrents. The 
Nile is swollen by this rainfall 
and overflows its banks. Late 
in June the descending flood 
reaches Lower Egypt, and the 
river gradually rises until the 
country becomes a vast inland 
sea. By the end of November the 
waters subside, leaving a rich 
sediment which covers the land 
and renders Egypt one of the 
most fertile regions on the globe. 

In olden times it was the granary 
of the world, the home of learning, 
and the seat of political power. 


Market place at Cairo, wh^e produce is brought on donkeys and camels to be sold, 
little sheds are bazaars where goods are sold. 


More than 5,000 years ago the 


Egyptians were a highly civilized people. The ruins of their temples 
and pyramids are unrivalled for grandeur; while the paintings on 
the walls of their tombs, as bright to-day as when executed by the 
artist, show that they had made wonderful progre.ss in the fine arts. 

3. Productions. —The leading productions are cotton, grains, 
and sugar. Beans, flax, millet, 
and dates are grown in large 
quantities. 

4. Commerce. —Egypt has a 
large trade with Europe, espe¬ 
cially with Great Britain. Four- 
fifths of her exports consist of 
raw cotton. Other exports are 
grain, vegetables, sugar, and 
tobacco. Her imports are cloth, 
hardware, lumber, and coal. The 
only manufacturing industry of 
importance is cigarettes, which 
are made at Cairo out of tobacco 
brought from Turkey. The lack 
of fuel and minerals makes farm¬ 
ing a more profitable industry. 


The columns of the great Egyptian temple at 
Karnak. The inscriptions can now be read. 

The Suez Canal, 87 miles long, connects the Red Sea with the Mediter¬ 
ranean. It forms a short and im])ortant route for commerce between 
Europe and Asia. It accommodates ves.sels drawing 25 feet of water. 

5. The Population of Egypt is over 13,000,000. It con¬ 
sists mainl}^ of 
Arabs and Copts. 
The prevailing 
religion is Mo¬ 
hammedanism. 
The peoi)le are 
ignorant and su¬ 
perstitious. 

The Copts. the 
descendants of 
the ancient 
Egyptians, are 
Christians, 
is a monarchy. 


Temple of Rameses the Great, at Thebes. Notice hmr it was buried 
in the sand and is note partly excavated. 

6. Government. —The government of Egypt 
The native ruler is called the Sultan. 


Communication in Egypt is car¬ 
ried on by steamboat, railway, 
post-office, and telegraph 

The great dam which has been 
built across the Nile at Assuan has 
added greatly to the irrigable area 
of the country. 

7. Cities. — Cairo, the capital, 
is the largest city of Africa and a 
great center of trade. Alexan¬ 
dria is the principal seaport and 
commercial city of Egypt. Port 
Said and Suez owe their impor¬ 
tance to their location at the 
Sint is a center for caravan trade 


extremities of the Suez Canal, 
with the Sudan. 

8. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is more than twice as large 
as Egypt, and is divided into fifteen provinces, each under a 
British governor. The capital of the entire country and the 
seat of British authority is Khartum, at the junction of the Blue 
and White Niles. 

The northern part of the country, formerly called Nubia, is a region 
of arid steppe.s, but south of Khartum are valuable forests of ebony, 
rubber, gum, and bamboo ti-ees and fertile plains yielding cotton, 
grain, and vegetables. The caravans bring ivoi-y, gold, ostrich 
feathers, gums, and skins from the interior and exchange them for 
tools, cloth, weapons, and various utensils which they sell to the 
natives. There is a railroad between Khartum and the Nile Delta, 
and also one from Berber to Suakiu and Port Sudan on the Red Sea. 

9. The People are negi'oes 
and Arabs. Schools are being 
established among them, and 
there is also a college at Khar¬ 
tum named in honor of Gen¬ 
eral Gordon, in which instruc¬ 
tion in literature, science, and 
the mechanic arts is given. 

There is also a training school 
for teachers. 

10. Abyssinia consists of 
three regions of elevation. 

The two lower are marked by 
tropical vegetation. The up])er- 
most is a grazing district. Many 
horses, sheep, goats, and camels 
are raised. 

The country is rich in gold, iron, 

and salt. Coffee, ivory, skins, and gold are exported. Cotton, 
woolen goods, cutlery, leather goods, and other manufactures are the 
imports. 

The people are of the white race, and profess the Christian re¬ 
ligion. They belong to different tribes who are frequently at 
war with one another. The capital of Abyssinia is Addis Abeba. 

Review Topics.— Location of Egypt. Name other countries in the Nile 
region. What is said of the Nile ? Of the old Egyptians? Leading productions. 
The commerce of Egypt. Exports. Suez Canal. Population. Prevailing reli¬ 
gion. Copts. Government. Alex.andria. Port Said. Suez. Siut. Anglo- 
Egyptian Sudan. Abyssinia. Minerals. 


-4 street in the Arab quarter of Cairo. The 
bay windows open into the women^s apartments, 
enabling them to look out without being seen. 


























156 


THE BAKBARY STATES. 


JLXXIV. THE BAHBAKY STATES. 


1 . Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Libia are known as The 
Barbary States, and are so called from their early inhabitants, 
the Berbers. Arabs, or Moors, now live there. 



On Uie quay at Tangier. 


These states e.Kteiid along the Mediterranean for 2,000 miles. 

They are bordered on the south by the Desert of Sahara, 
and are often visited by its hot winds. Their climate, however, 
is generally mild and delightful; the coast region enjoys almost 
perpetual spring. 

The inaxlucts of this region are wheat, dates, 
olives, grapes, and other fruits. 

Between the Atlas Mountains and the great desert 
is a i-egion known as the Land of Dates. Here 
groves of the date-palm supply the natives with 
food and protect them from the sun. The in¬ 
habitants are Arabs, Moors, and Berbers, and 
French. 

Libia and Morocco have a large caravan trade 
across the Sahara, with the Sudan, from whence 
they receive ivory, gold dust, gums, and ostrich 
feathers. 

The trade of the Barbarv States with Eu¬ 
rope is important. The chief exports are grain, 
sheep, cattle, dates, wine, olive oil, wool, and 
esparto grass, which last is used for making paper. 

This region in ancient times supplied the armies and navies of Car¬ 
thage, the rival of Rome. 

2. Morocco. —Morocco was long an independent empire, ruled 
by a Sultan. Most of the country is now under the protection of 
France, Avhile the remaining part is controlled by Spain. 

The exports are hides and skins, cattle, eggs, wool, almonds, 
barley, wheat, and linseed. English cotton goods, sugar, wine, 
tea, and flour are the chief imports. 

Fez, Morocco, and Tangier are the chief commercial cities. Rabat 
is the capital. There is a large caravan trade with the Sudan. 

3. Algeria and Tunis are the most prosperous of the Barbary 
States. They belong to France. Agriculture and herding are 
the chief occupations. There are large forests of cork-oak. There 
are 3,000,000 date-palms on the Sahara oases and 10,000,000 
olive trees on the mountain slopes, while the number of orange, 
lemon, and other tropical fruit trees is increasing. Transporta¬ 
tion is well provided for by good ^vagon roads and railroads to 

seaports, connecting with swift steamships for the ports of 


Europe. Iron and zinc are the chief metals mined. The yield 
of phosphate rock is second only to that of the L'nited States. 

From its gardens southern France and other ])arts of Europe 
are supplied with early fruits and vegetables. 

Esparto grass grows in unlimited supply on the southern pla¬ 
teaus. It is sent to England and France for use in making paper, 
and with zinc ore and cork forms the most valuable export. Iron, 
hides, phosphate, flax, tobacco, grains, wine, and sheep are the 
other leading exports. Algeria and Tunis dej)end upon France 
for seven-eighths of their imports; these consist of cloth, coal, 
coffee, tea, and various manufactures. From other countries 
they import catcle, lumber, tobacco, and leather. 

A1 giers, the capital, is the center of trade, and a favorite resort 
for invalids in winter. Con.staiitine and Orau are important 
towns. 

4. Libia.—Libia, having no mountains between it and the 
Sahara, is mostly sterile, the sand of the desert being blown in 
many places up to the very margin of the sea. 

Tripoli, the capital of the district of Tripolitania, has a large caravan 
trade \vith the Sudan to obtain its products. 

Fezzan, a great group of oases, belongs to Libia. 

Water is found in abundance at depths of ten to twenty 
feet. Grains and fruits are cultivated. The date-palm 
is everywhere. 

Murzuk is the point of junction of caravans passing 
from the Sudan to Tripoli and Cairo. Formerly it was 
enriched by the traffic in slaves, bought in the Sudan, 
sometimes 10,000 in a year, and carried to Mediterra¬ 
nean cities. This traffic is now forbidden by the gov¬ 
ernments of civilized nations. 

Libia is subject to Italy. Bengazi is the cap¬ 
ital of the district of Cyrenaica. 

Review Topic.s—Barbary States. Coast line. What 
borders them on tlie south? Climate. Products. Land of 
dates. Inhabitants. Caravan trade. Exports. How does 
Morocco rank among the Barbary States? Form of govern¬ 
ment. Exports. Capital. What of Fez? Algeria and Tunis. 
Minerals and vegetable products. What is said of the capital? 
Other towns. Why is Libia mostly sterile ? What is said of the capital of Tripoli¬ 
tania? Fezzan. Murzuk. Bengazi. To what power does Libia owe allegiance ? 



Algiers. 


LXXV. SAHARA, SUDAN, AND THE BELGIAN CONGO. 

1. Sahara.—The Sahara is the largest desert in the world. It 
reaches from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the Xile on the 
east, and is nearly two-thirds the size of the United States. 

It is a part of the great desert belt that extends from the western 



lnierior of a house in Algiers. 






















THE SAHAEA, SUDAN, AND THE BELGIAN CONGO. 


157 


shores of Africa to the eastern limits of the desert of Gobi, in Asia, 
thus crossing two continents. 

2. The Surface consists of vast plateaus of gravel and sand, 
broken by hills of drifting sand, and bare, rocky ridges, with here 
and there a fertile section or oasis. 

These oases are like islands of verdure amid an ocean of sand. 
They determine the caravan routes. 

The atmosphere is simrnlarly di’y, ,Tnd the sun beats down with terrific 
force by day. 

The sand 
burns like 
fire, the air 
scorches like 
flame. Not¬ 
withstanding 
this heat by 
day, it often 
freezes at 
night. In the 
winter the 
people in 
some sections 
wear furs. 

3. Population.—The scanty [topulation consists chiefly of 
nomadic tribes of Arabs, or Moors, who wander with their flocks 
from one oasis to another in search of pasturage. 

In the larger oases, villages and cities are found having a 
considerable population. 

In the central regions of the Sahara are the Tuaregs, a tall and 
handsome people, who wear shawls around their heads and faces to 
protect them from the blown sands of the desert. They control the 
caravan routes, and act as guai-ds to the caravans in their passage. 

4. Trade.—The people of the desert are largely occupied in 
transporting, by means of their camels, the exports of the Sudan 
to the Mediterranean cities, and bringing in 
return cutlery, cotton goods, and trinkets. 

The salt of the Sahara mines and brine pits constitutes 
the wealth and only important e.xport of this region. 

In some places it is quarried in blocks. At Bilmah, 
which supplies the greater part of Central Africa 
with salt, are pits in which, every two or three 
days, a crust of salt is formed several inches 
thick. Caravans of a thousand camels go to Bilmah 
for it. 

6. Caravans.—Numerous caravans cross the 
desert from the Barbary States and Egypt. The 
main routes are from Tripoli to Kano, in the 
Sudan, from Morocco to Timbuktu, and from Egy])t to El Fasher. 

Thousands of camels, freighted, with merchandise, pass over these 
ways of the wilderness. They occupy from thirty to ninety days in 
their jouniey. 

The camel has justly been called “the ship of the desert.” He is 
wonderfully fitted to live in this waterless region, and act as carrier 
across the pathless sands. He is provided with a pouch that will 
hold a supply of water sufficient for several da3"s, while his feet are 
furnished with cnshioned soles, whicli protect them from the burning- 
heat of the sand, and make his footing firm. 

6. The Sudan.—The Sudan is a broad, fertile belt, immedi¬ 
ately south of the Sahara, stretching nearly across the continent. 

Its prairies yield abundant pasturage and large crops of Indian 
corn, while cotton and indigo grow wild. 


7. The Population consists of Arabs and negroes. The 
latter, especially the inhabitants of the old kingdom of Bornu 
near Lake Chad, are among the most intelligent and civilized 
of their race. 

They till the soil, manufacture implements of iron, and understand the 
arts of weaving and dyeing. Many of them are Mohammedans. 

8. Trade. —The Sudan has a large cai’avan trade with Egypt 
and the Barbary States. The chief articles of export are gold 

dust, ivory, palm oil, and ostrich feathers. The 
imports are cloth, weapons, and hardware. 

There are some large towns of huts, but none of well- 
built dwellings like those of civilized counti'ies. Kano,. 
Sokoto, and Timbuktu are starting-points for cara¬ 
vans bound for the shores of the Mediterranean. 

9. The entire region of the Sahara and the 
Sudan is now under the control of England 
and France. 

France controls nearly all of the Sahara west of the 
basin of tlie Nile to the Atlantic, and north of the 
• British possessions in the Niger region to Tripoli and 
Algeria—in all about 1,800,000 square miles. 

A railway is projected from the Niger Valley to the Mediterranean. 

French west Africa comprises parts of the Senegal and upper Niger 
valleys. Senegal has 600 miles of railway, and 1,600 miles of tele¬ 
graph lines. 

10. The Belgian Congo comprises a large portion of the basin 
of the Congo. It extends from the Atlantic to Lake Tanganyika, 
and is about one-third the size of the United States. 

The resources are chiefly agricultural. Tropical products of every 
description either grow naturally or may be cultivated. Coffee and 
cotton grow wild. Ivory is an iinportaut product. Palms of various 
species abound. 

11. The Population, mostly negroes, is believed to be 

fifteen millions. 
Some of the 
tribes are in¬ 
telligent and 
industrious, and 
occupy well- 
built villages. 
Some have con¬ 
siderable skill 
in the manufac¬ 
ture of metals 
and pottery. 

Many of the natives are receiving the teachings of Christianity. 

12. The Commerce of the Belgian Congo must in time be 
very large. Already steamers ply upon its rivers, and numerous 
trading stations have been established. The chief exports are 
rubber, palm oil, coffee, ivory, gums, and nuts. 

The most valuable tree of this region is the oil-pnlm. It produces 
bunches of a fi’uit which looks like a red or j’ellow i)lum. A bunch 
has from 800 to 1,000 “plums.” Oil is obtained by l)oiling the fruit. 

Boiiia and Leopoldville are the principal trading-posts. 

Review Topics. —The Sahara. Surface. Oases. The heat by day. The 
cold by night. Population. Occupation. Salt trade. Between what points are 
the great caravan routes? The camel. The Sudan. Products. Population. 
Trade. Exports. Cities. How are the Sahara and the Sudan controlled ? 
Where is the Belgian Congo ? What of its resources ? Population. Commerce. 



A view of the northern SaJiara, ahowina its broken surface and barren sands. 



Irrigation in the Egyptian Sudan. Water-jars attached to a chain make the pump; the jars go 
down into the well, are filled, and come up, emptying the water into a canal, which carries it to the 
field. The wheel to which the chain is attached is turned by cogs in the large horizontal wheel 
turned by the camel. 














158 


THE WESTERN COAST. 


LXXVIII. THE WESTERN COAST. 

1. The Lowland forming the western coast of Africa, part of 
which is known as Guinea, has. in general, a hot, unhealthful 
climate, and a luxuriant tropical vegetation. 

2. The Resources, ])articularly the agricultural capacities 
of West Africa, are boundless. Cotton, coffee, and rice are 



A milage of civilized negroes at Cape Palmas, Liberia. 


grown; and the forests yield in profusion palm oil, ebony, India 
rubber, and other tropical products. 

The entire region, with the exception of Liberia, has been 
appropriated by European governments. 

3. The English possessions in West Africa are six; Gambia, 
Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Nigeria. These together 
have an area larger tliaii Texas and CUilifoniia, and a popu¬ 
lation of about 22,000,000—all natives, except a few hundred 
Europeans. 

Gambia is a district near the mouth of the river of the same name. 

Sierra Leone was orginally esfciblished by the English Government 
as an asylum for negroes rescued from slave traders. Freetown 
is the capital. 

The Gold Coast extends along the Gulf of Guinea, and includes the 
kingdom of Ashanti. 

Nigeria is a valuable region between Dahomey and Cameroon, inhabited 
by negro tribes of various degrees of civilization. It comprises 
large areas of the Niger Valley. Within its limits is the old 
empire of Sokoto, the most extensive and populous region in the 
entire Sudan. 



View <nx the Guinea Coaet. 


Lagos, the capital, is on an island in the Bight of Benin. It has 
railroad connection with the interior. 

The trade of these colonies is only in its infancy, but is steadily 
increasing. All the western colonies export palm oil and nuts, 
ground nuts, kola nuts (used in medicine), copal, rubber, coffee, 
and ivory, and import cotton cloth, cutlery, hardware, firearms, 
and liquors. 

In all of these colonies industries and transportation are un¬ 


developed. Experimental farming is carried on and roads are 
being built. Schools are conducted for the natives, and in many 
of these institutions instruction is given in the trades and in 
agriculture. 

4. The People are for the most part natives. Pains have been 
taken in acquiring possession of the territories to preserve their 
friendship. 

The most widely diffused religion of Nigeria is Mohammedan¬ 
ism, and in most of the British West African colonies Moham¬ 
medans are numerous. But paganism still largely prevails. 

In northern Nigeria an Engli.sh and a Canadian Mis.sionary Society are 
at work, and have industrial and other schools at several stations. Thus 
Christian education is being received by thousands of pupils. 

5. Liberia is a small independent republic, established in 1847 
as a home for the freed negro slaves of America who desired to 
go there. Its capital is Monrovia, named after President James 
Monroe. Only a 
small proportion 
of the popula¬ 
tion, however, 
consists of their 
descendants. 

The chief indus¬ 
try is coffee¬ 
raising. 

6. The chief French possessions in West Africa are Senegal, 
French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Territory of the Niger, 
and French Equatorial Africa. 

Senegal comprises the ba.sin of the Senegal River, and land to the east. 

French Guinea consists of part of the coast west of Sierra Leone. 

Freneli Siulan lies east of Senegal. 

Tei*ritory of the Niger lies east of the French Sudan. 

French Equatorial Africa is a vast area comprising nearly a million 
square miles, and forming part of the lower Congo Basin and extending 
north to Lake Chad. 

Schools and post-offices have been established; railways and telegraphs are 
being constructed. 

The Ivory Coast lies east of Liberia. 

Dahomey was once the most powerful native kingdom on the slave 
coast. The king in olden times was a despot. Besides ordinary 
troops he had a bodj’^-guard of 4,000 “Amazons,” or female warriors, 
who were noted for their courage and discipline. When the king 
died, a number of his subjects were sacrificed at his tomb. This ha.s 
all been changed. 

The natives are pure negroes, and are ignorant and superstitious. 
They are, however, industrious, and produce the finest of palm oil 
and the best of maize. Ivory and India rubber are obtained. 



Cameroon harbor on the western coast^Hfotice'tke pier bvilt out into the water and the ship 
lying at anchor. Goods and passengers are brought ashore in small boats. 



















THE WESTERN COAST; CARE OF OOOD HOPE. 


159 




7. At the close of the World War, 

Germany lost all her foreign possessions. 

Togo and Cameroon were divided be¬ 
tween France and England. Southwest 
Africa, mostly a desert with some jiasture 
lands and diamond mines, became a protecto- 
lute of the Union of South Africa. Herman 
East Africa, except a small area added to 
Relgian Congo, became Tanganyika Ter¬ 
ritory, and is under British control. 

8. The Portuguese possessions com¬ 
prise a part of Guinea, Angola, and the 
Azores, Cape Verde, and other islands. 

Angola includes a vast fertile region of nearly half a million square 
miles. The population consists of about 4,000,000 negroes and a few 
Europeans. The chief products are coffee, rubber, wax, sugar, vege¬ 
table oils, and ivory. There is much copper, iron, petroleum, and salt. 
There are about 800 miles of railway, and 2,000 miles of telegraph. 
Lioanda is the capital and chief commercial town. The principal other 
towns are Ainbriz, Benguela, and Mossaniedes. 

9. Islands off the Coast. — The Cape Verde Islands, Ma¬ 
deira, and the outlying Azores, all belong to Portugal. They are 
of volcanic origin. 

Large quanti- 


land, Basutoland, and 
Southwest Africa. 

The Union of South 
Africa comprises under 
a general government 
tlie’provinces of Cape 
of Good Hope, Natal, 
the Transvaal, and 
Orange Free State, be¬ 
sides tlie protectorate of 
street m Cape Town. Soutliwest Africa. The 

governor-general is appointed by the Briti.sh sovereign, and each 
province also lias its own local government. 

3. Cape of Good Hope, often called Cape Colony, includes 
the famous Kimberley diamond region of South Africa. In 
twenty years it yielded diamonds valued at !J250,000,000. 

Wine is largely made. Stock-raising is the chief industry. 

An important occupation is ostrich farming; two hundred and fifty thou¬ 
sand ostriches are kept m herds, like cattle, for the sake of their feathers. 


The principal 
diamonds. 


They are famous for fruits and wines, 
ties of oranges 
are exported from 
the Azores. As 
many as 26,000 
oranges have 
been gathered 
from a single tree 
there in one year. 

The Canaries, also 
volcanic, belong 
to Spain. To 
them we owe i he 
singing-birds that 
bear their name. 

St. Helena is a 
land owned and 
Great Britain. Heiv 


mine where the 


are dug. 


n open small rocky is- 
fortified by 

Napoleon was imprisoned and lived until he died. 

Ileview Topics.— State what you know of tlie climate ami resources of West 
Africa. The English Colonies. French Colonie.s. German Colonies. Portugue.se 
Colonies. The Islands. The Commerce. 


exports are gold, 
and wool, ostrich 
feathers, and copper. 
The export of gold 
exceeds that of all 
other products com¬ 
bined. Diamonds 
are the second larg¬ 
est export. Ostrich 
feathers, the hair of 
the Angora goat 
(moliair), copper ore, 
hides, and wine also 
are important. Most 
of the exports go to 
Great Britain, but 
, some of the wool, 

crushed to get the gravel, moiiaiF, diamonds, featlicrs, and also spiccs and oil from 

the eastern coast come to the United States. We sell 
the South African provinces breadstuffs, macliiner 3 ', provisions, rum, 
lumber, tobacco, kerosene, cotton cloth, leather goods, aiul fish. There 
is little manufacturing in South Africa. The natives are Kaffirs, 
Bechuanas, and Hottentots. There arc about 580,000 Europeans or 
wliites in the Province. 


.3. LooKing Jor diamonds in the washed gravel. 
The man standing by watches to see that no gems 
are stolen. 


Cape Town, the capital and largest city, is also the legislative 
capital of The Uiiiou. It has a fine harbor, and is the southern 


LXXIX. SOUTH AFRICA. 


1. All South Africa is under European control. 

2. The Britisli possessioii.s are Cape of Good Hope, Natal, 
Orange Free State, the Transvaal, Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Bechuana- 




The pier at Port Elizabeth. The surf is so heavy that boats going out to ships are loxoered from davits^ 
and merchandise is lifted by cranes^ which can be seen in the picture. 


terminus of a railway system which extends northward beyond the 
Zambezi, and connects with all the chief cities of that region. 
Kimberley is famous for its diamond mines. I*ort Elizabeth and 
East Eoiulon have good harbors, and i-ailway lines extending into the 
interior connect with the colonial railway sy.stem. 




































ICO 


BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA; THE EASTERN COAST. 



4. Basutoland, northeast of Cape of Good Hope, has a fine 
climate, is well watered, and is the best grain-growing region in 
South Africa. 


5. Natal includes Zululand. Its chief exports are wool, gold, 
sugar, and hides. It is rich in coal. 


2. Mozambique or Portuguese East Africa extends from 
Delagoa Bay to Cape Delgado, It possesses immense resources. 

There are forests of ebony, India rubber, and .sandal-wood. The Zam¬ 
bezi, like tlie Nile, overflows its valley, and the soil yields almost 
spontaneously. Immense coal beds exist, and gold so abounds that 
some have thought this theOpbir of Solomon’s day. Wax and ivory 
are exported. 

Loiireii^o 3Iar<nies, a small town, is the capital and chief seaport. 
It is the terminus of the Transvaal railroad. lieira is the terminus 
of a railroad to Southern Rhodesia. 

3. Tanganyika Territory, under British control, lies north of 
Cape Delgado, and extends westward to Belgian Congo. A rail¬ 
road extends from Dar es Salaam, the cajDital, to Lake Tanganyika. 

Coffee, cocoa, vanilla, and liber plants are grown in this region. 

4. Kenya, a British colony, is north of Tanganyika Terri¬ 
tory. 3Iombasa, the chief seaport, has railroad connection with 
Lake Victoria. West of Kenya is the British protectorate of 
Uganda. 


Pieterinarit/.burg, the capital, and the seaport of Durban aie con¬ 
nected by railway with ,T<dianne.sburg and Pret«)ria. 

6. T1h‘ iinnu'iisc territories of Kln>desia, with the I*rotectorate 
of Beclmanaland and the Nyasaland Protectorate, lie north of 
Cape of Good Hope, and extend to Tanganyika Territory and the 
Belgian Congo. They are under British control. 

Rhodesia is controlled by the British South Africa Company. For 
administrative purposes this territory is divided into two sections, 
Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia. 

The Zambezi is the dividing line between Northern Rhodesia and 
Southern Rhodesia. Matabeleland and Mashonaland form the 
southern section, wdiile to the northward is the great basin of the 
Zambezi and the lake region. The entire area possesses immense 
deposits of gold, silver, and other minerals, and great grazing and 
agricultural possibilities. 

A railroad from Cape Town extends into the territory, and continues 
northward into Belgian Congo. Railroad connection is also made 
with Beira in Mozambique, and steamers navigate Lake Njnasa 
and the Zambezi. Banks, churches, schools, public libraries, and 
hospitals have been established. Salisbury is the capital of 
Southern Rhodesia; Uiving-stone of Northern Rhodesia. 

7. The Orange Free State is rich in gold and diamond mines 
and grazing lands. Bloemfontein is the capital. 

8. The Transvaal contains famous gold deposits. It may be 
called the California of Africa. It has good grazing lands. 

Pretoria, the capital, is also the executive capital of The Union. 
Johannesburg, the center of the gold mining region, is now the 
largest city in South Africa. 

Cape of Good Hope once belonged to Holland, and many Dutch farmers 
(in their language, Boers) settled there. When this colony became Brit¬ 
ish, many of the Boers crossed the Orange river and the Vaal river and 
established colonies which in time became two Boer republics called the 
Orange Free State and the South African Republic. In 1900 these 
became British colonies as the result of war with England. Except in 
Johannesburg, the population is composed almost wholly of Boers. 

lleview Topics.— Political divisions of Soutli Africa. Products. Inhabit¬ 
ants Trade. 

liXXX. THE EASTERN COAST. 

1. The eastern coast of Africa is held by Portugal, Great 
Britain, France, Italy, and Egypt. It resembles the western in 
surface, climate, productions, and exports. 


The area of British possessions in east Africa is about 800,000 square 
miles; the population is over 14,000,000 negroes and Arabs. The 
.country is being developed. Roads and railroads are under con¬ 
struction, and the natives generally are quietly settling down to 
agriculture and other peaceable pursuits. 

Zanzibar, on the island so called, is a British protectorate. 

It is the chief market of the world for ivory and cloves. 


5. Italian East Africa consists of portions of the Red Sea 
coast, to Avhich the name Eritrea has been given, and of a pro¬ 
tectorate on the Somali coast. The pearl fisheries are valuable. 



(■ r.il view i‘i A' n/btrli)/, shoirin i b'l il-i. igs around tJie dionio'd. rn ines. 


6. Somali is shared by England, France, and Italy. It is 
peopled niostl}' by nomadic tribes. It is noted for the production 
of gum Arabic and inj’^rrh. It exports these, together with 
ostrich feathers, ivory, gold dust, and cattle. 

The chief town is tlie seaport of Berbera, where a gi-eat fair is held 
every year. At that time the place is crowded with thousands of 
traders from various parts of Asia and Africa, who come here and 
exchange the ]n'oducts of the two continents. 

7. Madagascar is a colony of Franee. It has adopted Chris¬ 

tianity, and is advancing in civilization. 

Its climate and products are alike, but its animal life is very diffei*ent 
from that of South Africa. It is rich in soil and minerals. One of 
its products is the traveler’s tree, the leaf-stalks of which contain 
as much as a quart of pure water, even in dry weather. Persons 
and freight ai’e transported on the shoulders of bearers; but wagon 
roads and railways are being built. 

The island of 3Iauritius belongs to Great Britain; Reunion, to 
France. They are extremely fertile, and export sugar, coffee, vanilla, 
and sisal hemp, 

Revdew Topics—What powers control east Africa? Describe their posses¬ 
sions. Products. Inhabitants. Madagascar. Mauritius. Reunion, 
















AUSTRALIA. 


161 



1 He isuiier rooa on tne east coast. 

the center of the continent are 
some low mountain I’ang^es rising 
above the plain. 

The principal mountain range 
is that of the Australian Alps, 
which contain peaks as high as 
10,000 feet. They are near the 
east coast and are known as the 
Dividing Eange of the continent. 

These are old, worn-dowil moun- Teaming in the Australian Bush." 
tains, and may be compared with our own Alleghenies. 

The largest rivers are the Murray and the Darling, each more 
than 1,000 miles long. Both are navigable for some distance in 
the rainy season, but at other times the Murray is low and the 
Darling is almost dry. The rivers of the interior basin flow 
into shallow, salt lakes, and in summer go dry. 

3. Climate.—The northern parts of the continent, being in 
the torrid zone, are hot. The northeastern and eastern coasts 
have an abundant rainfall, and the climate of southeast Australia 
is as mild as that of southern Europe. The southwest corner, 
also, has abundant rain. West of the Dividing Range the 
climate is dry. The great central plain of the continent has 
little rain. Parts of it are a desert and uninhabitable. 

4. Vegetation.—In the northeast, where the rains are abun¬ 
dant, there are dense tropical forests, and valuable hard woods 
are found. In the southeast are forests of cedar and pine and 


Road along the east coast, New South TT ales. 


The largest animal is the kangaroo. It often weighs as much as a 
sheep. The kangaroo and other Australian animals are shown in 
the jjicture on page 21. 

Among the birds, the most interesting are the lyre bird (named from the 
shape of its tail), the black swan, and the emu, or Australian ostrich. 
This last is sometimes seven feet high. The w'aters yield the pearl oyster. 

6. Resources. — Australia is 
one of the great gold, tin, and 
copper regions of the world. It 
surpasses all other countries in 
the production of wool. 

All the principal food plants, and 
the leading domestic animals of the 
northern hemisphere, have been in¬ 
troduced, and succeed well. 

7. People. — Australia was 


Wool team in Queensland. 

colonized by the English and is an English commonwealth. 
The aborigines are degraded savages. 

They have thick lips and flat no.ses, and complexions varying from 
chocolate to black. They are few in number and live in huts made 
of bark or the Irranches of trees. 

8. The Occupations are chiefly mining, stock-raising, and 
commerce. The exports are gold, wool, and meat. 

Two-thirds of this trade is with Great Britain, which takes wool, foods, 
and metals, and sells in return textiles, iron goods, machinery, ships, 
chemicals, and various manufactures. Our import of Australian 
wool is very large, but most of it comes to us by way of Great 
Britain. Our other imports are hides, hemp, and rabbit-skins, which 
are used in making hats. We sell to Australia more than twice as 
much as we buy of her. Our exports are chiefly flour, oil, steel, 
machinery, tobacco, lumber, paper, and explosives. 

9. Government.—The Commonwealth of Australia consists of 
six states, five in the island of Australia and one in the island of 
Tasmania. The Territory of Papua, and the former German part 
of New Guinea with adjacent islands, are dependencies of the 
Commonwealth. The laws of the Commonwealth are made by a 


LXXXI. AUSTRAT.ASIA. 

1. Australasia consists of Australia and Tasmania, New 
Zealand, and the Fiji Islands. 

2. The continent of Australia has an area nearly equal to 
that of the United States. It consists for the most part of a 
vast ])lain encircled by mountains of moderate elevation. Near 


the immense eucalyptus gum trees, peculiar to Australia. West 
of the mountains the forests grow gradually thinner, and on the 
plains give place to a dense growth of thorny bushes ten 
or twelve feet high called “the scrub.” These plants are 
peculiarly adapted to the hot, dry climate. 

5. Animals. The animal species native to Australia are few 
in number, and very different from those of other continents. 
There are among them no oxen, horses, or sheep, no monkeys, 
and no large beasts of prey. The English have imported domes¬ 
tic animals, and sheep do especially well there. 





























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AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. 


163 




This is one of the leading streets I'n Melbourne. 

Federal Parliament, consisting of the Governor-General (who 
represents the King of England), a Senate, and a House of 
Representatives. Each state has a lieutenant-governor and a 
legislative assembly. 

10. Cities.—The 
principal cities are 
Melbourne, tli(' 
temporary capital 
uf the Common¬ 
wealth, and also tlie 
ea])ital of A^ictoria 
and the chief com¬ 
mercial center of 
Australia; Sydney, 

the capital of New Queen street in .iurk-laml. 

South Wales; Adelaide, the capital of South Australia; 
and Brisbane, .the chief city of Queensland. These 
are all fine modern cities. 

11. Tasmania.—Tasmania is very mountainous, and 
is rich in minerals. The climate is mild and the soil 
fertile. The chief occupations are lumbering, agricul¬ 
ture, and sheep raising. Wool is the leading export. 

Hobart is the chief city and capital. 

12. New Zealand.—The islands of New Zealand 
have a mild climate and a fertile soil. Their vast for¬ 


ests yield v^aluable timber. Gold, silver, coal, iron, and Forest oi kauri 
■copper abound in these islands. 


New Zealand flax is an important product. It grows to the height of 
sixteen to twenty feet, and has leaves ten or twelve feet long. The 
fiber serves to make sails, nets, garments, baskets and ropes. 

13. Occupations.—Sheep raising is the greatest industry, wool 
and frozen mutton forming over half the exports; many cattle 
are kept for dairying, the value of the butter and cheese export 
approaching 000,000, annually. Gold, silver, and coal are the 
cliief minerals. Apples, grapes, and other fruits are extensively 
gj-own. New Zealand has 2O,O00 square miles of forests. One 
of the famous trees is the kauri pine which yields the kauri 
(cowrie) gum of commerce. By far the larger part of the gum 
is found in masses often weighing one hundred pounds buried in 
the ground where the trees grew and perished ages ago. It is 
our chief import from New Zealand. 

Manufactures are increasing i-apidly in New Zealand and already sup¬ 
ply most home needs. 

They include lumber, leather, clothing, flour, malt liquors, furniture, 
boots and shoes, woolen goods, and iron and brass goods. Clothing, 
textiles, iron and steel goods, machinery, paper and books, sugar, oils, 
spirits, beer, coal, tobacco, and tea are the principal imports. 

AV clliiigtoii is the capital. Biiiiediii is the principal 

seaport. 

The aborigines (Maoris) are Malays. Unlike the natives of Australia, 
they arc finely formed, and intelligent, but warlike. 

14. Fiji comprises a group of islands lying north of New 

Zealand and belong¬ 
ing to Great Britain. 
The people have 
been converted to 
Christianity. 
Thousands of na¬ 
tive children attend 
school. Sugar 
and cocoanuts 
are the chief ex¬ 
ports. 

Review Topics.— 
Australasia. Australia. 
Climate. Resources. 

pine in Neir Zealand. The men are digging the fossil kauri gum. Vegetation. Animals. 

I’uojile. Ouciipations. Tasmania, (jovcniinent. Cities. New Zealand. Fiji. 


Cou.NrniEs. 

Area in . 

Sqr. Miles. 

Austraha. 

2,972,866 

26,215 

104,663 

289,948 

50,745 

185,039 

6,449 

Tasmania . 

NpW ZpRlftTlfl . 

Borneo. 

•Java. 

Sumatra. 




Po[)ulation. 


5,437,000 

214,000 

1,221,000 

1,971,000 

30,360,000 

4,288,000 

256,000 


MAP STUDIRS.—What should you think the climate of Australia 
must be? In what mouth is the Australian mid.summer? Midwinter? 
What are the products of Australia? Of Tasmania? Of New Zealand? 

Malaysia.—Where is Malaysia? Name the products of the Sunda 
Islands. What do we get from Borneo? What little islands between 
Siimatra and Borneo supply a large portion of the tin of the Avorld? 

Melanesia.—Where is Melanesia? New Guinea is named from 
Guinea, on the coast of Africa. The natives are of the negro race. 

Polynesia.—AVhere is Polynesia? What is its northwest division 
called? What are the products of the Ladrones? Fiji? Samoa? 


BXXXII. OCEANIA. 

1. Oceania consists of almost all the islands in the Pacific 
Ocean except those of Australasia. 

Many of them are volcanic; hundreds are of coral formation. 

2. The Coral Polyp.—The coral polyp is a small jelly-like 
animal which builds up from the bottom of shallow seas vast 
islands upon which sea-shells gather seeds drift, plants grow, 
and finally man comes to dwell. 

These islands are composed chiefly of lime. The polyps separate lime 
from the water, and huild it up in solid form and die on the rock 
where they are born. In time millions and millions of these little 
skeletons are piled one upon another until an island or a reef rises 
above the water. In time waves grind up a soil upon these new-born 
rocks and tropical plants .soon grow and cover them. The currents 
of the sea are hod cari-iers for these little masons of the deep, who 
work only in the warmer seas. 











































164 


OCEANIA. 


3. Coral Reef. —Many of the coral islands are sui-rounded by 
coral reefs at some distance from the shore. Between some of 


them and the shore ships ride in deep and smooth water. Such 
a reef skirts the northeast coast of Australia for more than a 
thousand miles. It varies in breadth from a few yards to nearly | 
fifty miles. ' 

4. Malaysia. —The islands southeast of Asia are called the 



In the island of Sumatra.—Native houses and a temple. 


Malay or East Indian Archipelago; sometimes Malaysia. Java, 
Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, parts of Borneo 
and of New Guinea, with several smaller islands, belong to the 
Netherlands, and are known as the Dutch East Indies. 

Malaysia is one of the most remarkable volcanic regions in the 
Avorld. Java and Sumatra are studded with volcanoes. 

5. Java is the “ pearl of the Indies. ” It contains a population 
of more than 35,000,000. Important exports are coffee, tobacco, 
rice, sugar, tea, and cinchona. 

The islands of Banka and Billiton are famous for tlieir tin mines. 


6. Sumatra, Celebes, and the Moluccas are famed for their 
spices (nutmeg, mace, and cloves). 

In Sumatra grows the largest flower in tlie world. Its cup is a yard in 
diameter, and holds two gallons of water. The plant is a parasite 
called Rafflesia. The chief exjjorts are tobacco and black pe])per. 

There is regular steamship service between the Dutch colonies and the 
countries of Europe and Asia. A large ])art of the land is farmed 
under the direction of the government and the products are .sold at 
auction in Amsterdam to Dutch mei’chauts, who are the “middle¬ 
men” for the distribution of colonial products. So it happens that 
we buy Java coffee, Sumatra tobacco, and Banka tin in Holland. 
We also buy there the sugar, gums, and spices grown in the Dutch 
colonies. Our sales to Holland for e.xport to the colonies are mainly 
kerosene and machinery. 

7. Borneo is one of the largest islands in the world. 

It exports timber, 
gutta-percha, co- 
coanuts, and to¬ 
bacco. A m o n g 
its curiosities is 
the flying frog. 

8. The Phil¬ 
ippines. (For 
a description see 

p. 82.) 

9. Melanesia 

comprises Papua, 
or New Guinea, and a chain of islands extending to and includ¬ 
ing New Caledonia. 



It derives its name, Melanesia, or Black Islands, from the 
black tribes called Papuans. They are savages. 

New Guinea is divided between the Dutch and the British. The 



In the Solomon Islands, 


western part of the island is owned by the Netherlands, the east¬ 
ern part by Great Britain. 

The English are actively developing the resources of their part, and 
are (Ihristianizing and civilizing the natives. 

New Guinea has fertile soil well suited to tobacco. Much of the 
land is adapted for grazing, and the forests furnish valuable 
timber. 

A curious bird found in New Guinea is the bird of paradi.se. 

New Caledonia, a mountainous island east of Australia, belongs to 
France, and, with the neighboring Loyalty Islands, it is used as a 
convict colony. The island is famous for its nietallic ores—nickel, 
tin, mercury, copper, and platinum being found. 


10. Polynesia. — Eastward of Melanesia lies Polynesia, or the 
Many Islands. These dot the Pacific through the space of many 
million square miles. 

The northwestern divi¬ 
sion of Polynesia is some¬ 
times called Micronesia, 
or the Little Islands. 

The Polynesians are 
IMalays. 

Tlie bread-fruit, yam, and 
cocoanut are tbeir cliief 
f o o d p 1 a II t s . Tlie 
sweet - scented .sandal¬ 
wood, wliicb tlie Chi¬ 
nese burn as incense in 
■pagodas, and copra, 
the dried kernel of the 
cocoanut, are exported. 

Samoa is a volcanic 

, A ^oo ^ travelers palm. This tree grcnvs vn many tropical 

g*rOUp <ii)()Ut 13^ south countries. When cut into, it yields several quarts of water. 

of the equator, not far from the center of the Pacific Ocean, and in 
the region of the southeast trade-wind. From December to April it 
has a wet season, with a rainfall, in some years, amounting to 130 
inches. 

The natives are Malays—intelligent but indolent. They have been 
converted to Christianity. From the skill with which they manage 
their canoes amid the surf, the islands have been called the “Isles of 
the Navigators.” 

Savaii and Upolu belong to New Zealand ; Tutuila and Manua to 
the United States. 

11. Hawaii. (For description, see p. 82.) 

Review Topics— Describe Oceania. Two kinds of islands. The coral 
polyp. Coral reefs. Malaysia. For what remarkable? Java. Sumatra. Celebes. 
The Moluccas. Borneo. Melanesia. The natives. New Guinea. New Caledonia.. 
Polynesia. Micronesia. Products. Samoa. 



















GENERAL REVIEW. 


165 


GENERAL REVIEW. 

I. Form.— Of what form is the earth ? Was its real form always known? Colum¬ 
bus thought he could reach India by sailing west from Europe, was he right ? What 
expedition proved that the earth is round ? How do eclipses of the moon prove it 
even better? 

What is the difference between the polar diameter of the earth and the equatorial ? 
Between the polar and equatorial circumferences ? What do these differences show 
about the exact figure of the earth ? What is the area of the earth ? 

How is position indicated on the surface of the earth ? Are the degrees of latitude 
between o° and io° and between 6o° and 70° equal each to each ? Are all degrees 
of longitude equal each to each ? How long in miles is a degree of longitude at the 
equator ? Where is the point which has 0° latitude and 0° longitude ? 

II. Motions.—What are the motions of the earth? What is the rate at which a 
point on the equator rotates ? How are day and night caused ? Explain difference 
of time. Compare as to time Liverpool, New York, San Francisco. 

What determines the length of the year ? Explain the changes of the seasons. The 
inequality of day and night. The equinoxes. The solstices. 

III. Zones.—What does zone mean? Describe the division of the earth’s surface 
into zones. How far are the tropics from the equator? Why just so far? Why 
are the polar circles 23^° from the poles ? Describe the sun’s apparent annual 
journey. State its real meaning. Where does Christmas occur at midsummer? 
Explain why. 

IV. Divisions of Surface. —Which is greater, the land or the water-surface of 
the earth ? Is the water surface waste ? What are its great uses ? 

By what line is the earth as shown on maps divided into hemispheres ? What con¬ 
tinents are in the Eastern hemisphere? In the Western ? 

By what line is the earth divided into Northern and Southern hemispheres ? 

Which continents are mostly in the Southern hemisphere ? Which one is entirely 
within that hemisphere ? 

Which alone of the continents is really a separate body of land ? How are North 
and South America connected ? Asia and Africa ? What forms the boundary between 
Europe and Asia ? 

In what ocean do we find the greatest number of islands ? Name some of the 
most important islands and island groups of the world. 

Of which continents are the coast-lines the most indented ? Of which is the coast¬ 
line the most regular ? What is the value of coast indentations ? 

Define an ocean. Name the oceans. Where is each ? Are they really separated ? 
What are the world’s great inland seas ? Have they any special value I What is the 
Gulf Stream ? The Japan Stream ? Describe the course of each. The effect of 
each upon the continent toward which it flows. 

V. Relief.— What and where are the great mountain systems of North America ? 
South America? Europe? Asia? Africa? In what directions do these systems 
lie ? Name some of the highest mountains and their altitude. 

What is a volcano ? What and where are some of the most noted ? 

What plateau regions do you find in North America? In South America? How 
would you describe Africa as regards relief ? What plateau region in Southwestern 
Europe ? • 

Name the great plain regions of North America. Of South America. Europe. Asia. 

Name some of the noted valleys of the world. 

VI. Drainage.—Explain how the drainage of the world is effected. Name and 
locate the great rivers of North America. South America. Europe. Asia. Africa. 
Australia. What beside drainage are the offices of rivers ? 

Define a lake. Name and locate the great lakes of North America. Africa. The 
lakes of Europe. Asia. South America. Australia. Name some salt lakes. Why 
are they salt ? 

VII. Climate.—Define climate. What is rain ? Its source? Explain evapora¬ 
tion and condensation. What zone has the greatest rainfall ? What region ? What 
regions the least ? Explain winds. Their effect upon rainfall. Give illustrations. 
Explain the effect of mountains upon rainfall. Give illustrations. What effect has 
elevation upon climate ? Nearness to the sea? Illustrate. 

VIII. Vegetation.—Where do you find the densest and most luxuriant vegeta¬ 
tion? The most scanty ? Name some of the timber trees of North America. The 
great lumber regions of the continent. For what kinds of wood is Central America 
noted ? What forest products come from South America ? Where is the great forest 
region of Northern Asia? What valuable kinds of timber in Southern Asia? Where 
are the lands of the bamboo and palm-trees ? Name some of the forest trees of 
Europe. Of Africa. Of Australia. How are Australian trees peculiar? What 
countries of Europe have noted lumber regions ? 

Where does sugar-cane flourish ? What other sugar-plant is cultivated ? Whence 
come our great supplies of sugar ? 


Name some of the great sources of oranges, lemons, bananas, apples, grapes. 
What are the wine-making parts of the United States ? Of Europe ? Africa f 

Whence comes the tea supply of the world ? That of coffee ? Of cocoa ? 

What are the great food plants of the world ? The most important ? What are the 
chief wheat-growing regions of North America ? Where in South America is wheat 
largely raised ? What are the great wheat-growing countries of Europe ? What 
country in Asia is noted for its wheat ? What part of Asia is destined to become a 
large producer of wheat ? Where is rye a staple food ? What part of the world pro¬ 
duces the largest yield of corn ? What countries are famed for their rice crop ? What 
parts of the United States? What nations use rice as their chief food? In what 
regions do potatoes flourish ? Where is millet the chief food of the people ? Where 
is breadfruit indigenous ? The taro ? What fruit is largely the food of the Arab ’ 
Where is the banana a great food plant ? 

What island yields the most famous tobacco in the world ? What parts of the 
United States are noted for their tobacco? What islands in the Pacific ? Where are 
the great opium-raising regions ? Who are the great consumers of opium ? Where 
is the coca plant cultivated ? What is the effect of its leaf ? 

What plants supply fibre for making clothing ? What are the great cotton-growing 
regions of the world ? What countries are famed for their linen ? What plants yield 
fibre for cordage ? Where are they grown ? 

What continent is famed for its “ air-plants ” ? Whence come cinnamon ? Clover f 
Pepper ? Ginger ? Camphor ? Rubber ? Gutta-percha ? Attar of roses ? 

IX. Animal Life of the World.—In what zone are the largest and fiercest wild 
animals found ? Name some of the wild animals of North America. Of your own 
State. The domestic animals of North America. What parts of the United States 
are famed for cattle-raising ? For sheep? Hogs? Name some of the animals of 
South America. What are the cattle-raising regions of this continent ? Name some 

of the wild animals of Europe. The domestic animals. The animals of Africa. O) 
Australia. 

What are the great wool-growing regions of the world? Which of our States are 
noted for wool ? Name the silk-producing countries of Asia. Of Europe. The 
great fur-bearing regions in North America. In Asia. The most noted seal 
fisheries. 

Where are the great fishing grounds of North America? Where is whale fishing 
carried on ? Where are the great fishing grounds of Europe ? Where are sponges 
obtained ? Pearls ? 

X. Population.—About how large is the population of the globe? In what zones 
and on what continents are most of the people ? What is the population of North 
America ? How distributed ? Is any part of South America densely settled ? How 
large is the population of Europe? Asia? Africa? Australia? 

Describe the appearance of the different races of men. Where do you find each t 

XL Civilization.—What do we mean by the term civilized? Compare the races 
in this respect. Where do you find savages and barbarous people ? Civilized ? 
Enlightened? Which is the most progressive nation of the Mongolians? 

Describe the homes of an enlightened people. What tribes live in tents? Of what 
do the Eskimos build their huts ? In what sort of dwelling do the Bushmen live ? Of 
what do the Japanese and Philippine islanders make their houses? How did the 
natives on the coast of Venezuela originally build their houses ? How do the natives 
of New Guinea? Where do many of the people live in boats ? 

What leads to the building of towns ? What causes towns to grow into cities ? 
What reasons can you give for the growth of New York ? Chicago? San I rancisco? 
New Orleans? St. Louis? Atlanta? Galveston? Buffalo? Kansas City? London? 
Glasgow ? Hamburg ? Vienna ? Singapore ? 

XII. Religion.—What are the great religions of the world? Where do you find 
each ? 

XIII. Government.—Why is government necessary? What nations have the 
best forms ? The poorest ? 

XIV. Education.—What is education? Describe the education of savages. Of 
the Chinese. Name countries in which education is compulsory. What countries 
have the best public instruction ? Name some which have little or none. How do 
well-educated nations rank ? Give illustrations of this. Of the reverse. 

XV. Migration.—What causes lead to migration ? Which is the most migratory 
Face? What parts of the world have been settled by English colonists? Spanish? 
French? Dutch? What can you tell of the colonization of Africa now going en ? 
Of English colonization in India? Of foreign intercourse with China ? What has 
stimulated modern migration ? 

XVI. Industries.—Name regions in which the people have no occupation save 
that of securing food. How do such people rank ? In what kinds of labor are the 
intelligent people of the world engaged? Which of these is the most important? 
What determine the occupations of a country or region ? What are the great agricul¬ 
tural countries of the world ? The leading manufacturing countries ? The leaders 
in commerce ? In fishing ? 

Which are the largest coal-producing countries? The greatest producers of silver? 
Gold ? Tin ? Copper ? Emeralds ? Diamonds ? Salt ? 






fcom 


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30 


45 


76 


90 


105 


120 Longitude 135 


150 Greenwich 105 


180 West ^ 1G5 Longiti 



Pr. BARRON 


Whale \ 


Fishery 


C.LlSBUR 


CAPE OESHNEI 


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Lrchanffel 


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Dutcli Hai-bo, 




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OF THE WORLD: 

ALSO SHOWING 

THE OCEAN CURRENTS 

Ais"D TELEGRAPHIC CABLES. 




TASMANI 


EXPLANATION 

On water Steamer Routefi.with diclances ^ven In Geographical Miles 

on the water .Sailing Rfxites with time in days I .... on land,Caravan Routes 

Principal Telegraph Lines and Cables j Arrows show direction of 


Whole 


122 Longitude 137 from 152 Waehington 107 East 180 West 163 Longitude 143 from 133 Washington 118 


TRADE AND NAVIGATION. 

What is commerce? What was in early ages the great trade of the 
world? What nations gained control of the India trade after 1497? What 
caused this? 

What means of transportation are employetl in Central and South 
Africa, and why? What in the Sahara? What in carrying on the great 
tea and fur trade between Russia and China? What beasts of burden are 
used in the Andean States? How is trade carried on between India and 
Western Asia? 

Goods are paid for among civilized nations with money, chiefly gold and 
silver, but in parts of Africa products of one region are traded for those 
of another. In Abyssinia sm.all blocks of salt and in parts of India and 
of the African coasts small shells called cowries, have been used as money. 

In what parts of the United States are cattle largely raised? In what 
parts-of-South Amerien,? Where are-the most important fisheries for cod, 
herring, and mackerel? Salmon? The whale? 


What parts of the Pacific coasts of North America and South Amer¬ 
ica are famed for wheat? What part of Russia? Of North Africa? 
What grains abound in the central parts of North America? Where is 
rice extensively raised? What are the great tea-growing regions? What 
important article comes from Brazil? Which of the Dutch East 
Indies is famed for its coffee? From what part of Arabia do we get the 
best coffee? What are the great coffee ports? What one of the West 
Indies is noted for sugar? What part of the United States? What 
islands in the Pacific? To what part of the United States does Hawaii 
send sugar? The .shores of what great inland sea are famed for fruits? 
What islands in the Western Hemisphere are also noted for fruits? 

What parts of the United States grow large quantities of wool? What 
parts of South America? What English colonies? What section of the 
United States produces cotton? What portions of Asia? Africa? What 
countries are noted for flax? What is made of flax? What are the great 
silk-growing countries of Asui? Of Europe? From what regions do we 
get furs? Sealskins? Ostrich feathers? 


166 






















































































































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What continent chiefly supplies us with ivory? What is the great 
ivory port of the world? From what source do we get supplies of gum? 
Where do we get our chief supplies of India rubber? Of gutta-percha? 
Naval stores? Jute? Hemp? Drugs? Peruvian bark? Tobacco? 
Opium? Hides? What is the great manufacturing region of the New 
World? Of the Old? 

What cargo would a ship be likely to carry from Shanghai to New 
York? From Bombay to Liverpool? From Odessa to London? IromSan 
Francisco to London? From Rio to New York? Montevideo or Bilenos 
Aires to Liverpool? From the Guinea Coast to Liverpool? Havana to 
New York? New York to Liverpool? New Orleans to Liverpool? 

What enables sailing vessels to venture out of sight of land? The 
time rec^uired to cross the ocean has been shortened by voyagers availing 
themselves of the winds and currents of the sea. 

M^hat is the general direction of the winds in the northern half of 
the Torrid Zone? Mdiat in the southern half? M"hat in the North 
Temperate Zone? In the South Temperate Zone? What striking excep¬ 


tion to this system do you find in the Indian Ocean and China Sea? 

What is the best route from New York to Liverpool? How would a 
vessel make the (luickest return passage? 

By what route does tea pass from China to Russia? From China to 
New York? Formerly it was brought by steamers through the Red 
Sea and Suez Canal, but now most of it is brought across the Pacific 
to San Francisco or Vancouver and thence by railroad. Compare these 
routes in length. The old route was around Cape Horn, and thence 
through the Atlantic. What is the shortest route from Liverpool to 
Bombay? By what other route may vessels go? At what points do 
the steamers touch that ply between San Francisco and Sydney? What 
are the two routes between Sydney and Liverpool? The Panama 
Canal, which has been cut across the Isthmus of Panama, shortens 
the water route from New York to San Francisco about 10,000 miles, 
and makes an almost straight course between England and Australia, 
and between the Pacific shores of South America and the Atlantic 
ports of the United States. 

















































































































































GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES, 


DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH. 

Polar Diameter. 7,S99 miles. 

Equatorial Diameter. 7,925 “ 

Equatorial Circumference.24,s99 “ 

Superrtcial Area.196,Sill,750 square miles. 


HEIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS. 

Aorth Amerira. * Fe^t. 

Mount McKinley, Alaska.20,464 

Mount Logan, Canada..19,500 

Orizaba, Mexico.18,814 

Mount St. Elias, Alaska.18,024 

Popocatepetl, Mexico. 17,784 

Mount Wbanoell, Alaska.17,500 

Mount Brown, Canada.16,000 

Mount Wuitney, California.14,502 

Mount Rainier, Washington.14,368 

Mount Shasta, California.14,880 

Rooky Mountains (average), .10,000 

Sierra Nevada, “ 9,000 

Mount Mitchell, North Carolina.6,711 

Mount Washington, New Hampshire_ 6.279 

Appalachian Mountains (aver.),.2,500 


South America. 

Aconcagua, 

Sahama, 

Gualatirri, 

SORATA, 

Illimani, 

Chimborazo, 

Arequipa, 

Tolima, 

Andes Mountains (average), 


Europe. 

Elburz, Caucasus Mountains... .18,572 

Kasbbk, “ “ ....16,545 

Mont Blanc, Alps.15,784 

Monte Rosa, ‘‘ i5’223 

Matterhorn, “ 14*780 

Finsteraar-horn, “ 14*089 

Jungfrau, “ ISjlg 

Maladetta, Pyrenees.11,200 

Mount Etna (volcano), Sicily.10,874 

Mount Olympus, Greece. 9^745 

Mount Vesuvius (volcano),' Italy. 8^948 

Africa. 

Kilimanjaro, Central Africa.20,000 

Kbnia, “ “ .Ig^OoO 

Ruwbnzori, “ “ .17 000 

Teneeipfe, Canary Islands.12482 

Atlas Mountains (highest) *..11,400 

Alia. 

Everest, Himalaya Mountain s.29,000 

Dapsang, Karakoram Mountains.28,300 

Kanchinginoa, Hiuialaya Mountains .28,156 

Dhawalagiri, “ “ .29,000 

Hindu Kush Mountains.20,000 

Demavend, Elburz Mountains.18,469 

Ararat, Armenia.17,^60 

Fujiyama, Japan.14,000 


Chile.28,082 

Bolivia.22,850 

Chile.22,000 

Bolivia.21,286 

“ .21,149 

Ecuador.20,517 

Peru..18,500 

Colombia.18,821 

.18,000 


LENGTH OF PRINCIPAL RIVERS, AND AREA OF 
RIVER-BASINS. 


Name. 


north America. 

Mississippi (entire). 

Mackenzie. 

8t. Lawrence. 

Saskatchewan. 

Yukon. 

Arkansas ... . 

Rio Grande. 

Red. 

Columbia. 

Colorado . 

Ohio. 

Brazos. 

Tennessee. 

South America. 

Amazon. 

La PlatR (Parana) .. 

Orinoco. 

Madeira. 

San Fiancisco. 


Eorope. 

V olga. 

Danube. 

Dnieper. 

Don. 

Rhine. 

a68) 



Length. 

Area of Basin. 


Eng. Miles. 
4,800 

Square Miles. 
1,244,000 


2,800 

44.3,000 


2,200 

385,516 


1,732 

432,000 


2,000 

200,000 


2,000 . 

189,000 


1,800 

240,000 


1,600 

97,000 


1,400 

1,000 

298,000 


257,000 


950 

214,000 


950 

84,000 


800 

41,000 


8,750 

2,510,000 


2,500 

1,242,000 


1,600 

340,000 


2,000 

1,200 

250,000 


2,800 

400,000 


2,000 

209,180 


1 , 2^0 

242,(M)0 


1,325 

170,000 


960 

65.280 


Name. 

Length. 

Area of Basin. 

Asia. 

Eng. Miles. 

Square Miles. 

Yenisei. 

8.400 

1 , 000,000 

547,801) 

Yangtze. 

8,820 

Ob.;. 

8,000 

924,800 

Amur. 

2,650 

786,000 

Lena.. 

2,400 

800,0(10 

Brahmaputra. 

2,800 

450,000 

Indus. 

2,000 

312,000 

Euphrates . 

Ganges . 

1,780 

250,000 

1,960 

482,480 

Irawadi. 

1,200 

381,200 

Africa. 



Nile. 

4,100 

1,425,000 

Kongo . 

3,000 

1,500,000 

Niger . 

8,000 

800,000 

Zambezi. 

1,800 

900,000 

Australia. 



Murray. 

1,500 

500,000 


AREA AND POPULATION OF 
THE WORLD. 

Area in 

Sq. Miles. 

Population 

North America. 

9,432.000 

6,856,000 

3,854,000 

17,043,000 

11,514,000 

3,457,000 

5,000,000 

146,221,000 

63,850,000 

443,972,000 

888,992,000 

136,272,000 

8,758,000 


Europe. 



Au.stralasia and Oceania ... 

fldoth Folar l.and.^ . 

Total . 

57,156.000 

1,694.096,000 



PRINCIPAL RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD. 

Christians.565,000,000 

Jews. 15,000,000 

Mohammedans.225,000,000 

Buddhists.140,000,000 

Brahmans and Other Asiatic Religions .585,000,000 

Pagans.160,000,000 


POPULATION OF FOREIGN CITIES AND TOWNS. 

(F’rom the most recent foreign authorities.') 


NORTH AMERICA. 

Dom. of Canada (1921) 

Montreal. Queb.... 619,000 

Toronto, Ont. 522,000 

Winnipeg, Man.... 179,000 
Vancouver, B. C. . . 117,000 

Hamilton, Ont. 114,000 

Ottawa, Ont. 108,000 

Quebec, Queb. 95,000 

Calgary, A1. 63,000 

London, Ont. 61,000 

Edmonton, Al. 59,000 

Halifax, N. S. 58,000 

St.John, N. B. 47,000 

Victoria, B. C. 39,000 

! Windsor, Ont. 35,000 


Mexico (1910). 


1,080,000 


Mexico. —,— 

j Guadalajara. 119,000 

Puebla. . 96,000 

t Monterey. 74,000 

San Luis Potosi.... 68,000 

' Merida. 62,000 

'Leon. 58,000 

'‘VeraCIruz. 49,000 

Central America. 

Guatemala (’21).... 91,000 

rSan Salvador (*22). 81,000 

' Tegucigalpa (’20)... 39,000 

Leon C 2 O) . 38,000 

West Indies. 

Havana (’22). 364,000 

Port-au-Prince (’12) 120,000 

San Juan (’20). 71,000 

Santiago (’ 21 ). 71.000 

Matanzas (’22).... 63 000 

Kingston (’21). 63,000 

Ponce (’20).. .. 42.000 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Brazil (1920). 

Rio de Ja’iro.1,158,000 

Sao Paulo. 579,000 

Bahia. 283,000 

Pernambuco. 239,000 

Para. 236,000 

Guiana (1921). 

Georgetown. 55,000 

Paramaribo.... 51,000 

Cayenne. 10,000 


Venezuela (1920). 

Caracas . 92,000 

Maracaibo. 47,000 

Valencia. 29,000 

Colombia (1918). 

Bogota. 144,000 

Medellin. 79,000 

Barranquilla. 65,000 

Ecuador (1921). 

Guayaquil. 100,000 

Quito. 81.000 


Peru (1920). 

Lima.... 176,000 

Callao. 53.000 

Arequipa. 35,000 

Bolivia (1918). 

La Paz. 107,000 

Cochabamba. 31,000 

Sucre. 30,000 

Chile (1920). 

Santiago. 507,000 

Valparaiso. 182,00' 


Argentina (1922). 

Buenos Aires.1,720,000 

Rosario. 265,000 

Cordoba (’18). 156,000 

La Plata.. 151,000 

Paraguay (1922). 
Asuncion. 100,000 

Uruguay (1922). 
Montevideo. 351,000 


Magdeburg. 286,000 

Bremen. 284,000 

Konigsberg. 261,000 

Duisburg. 244,000 

Stettin. 233,000 

Mannheim. 230,000 

Kiel. 205,000 

France (1921). 

Paris.2,906,000 

Marseille. 586,000 

Lyon. 562,000 

Bordeaux. 267,000 

0 Lille. 201,000 

Nantes. 184,000 

Toulouse. 175,000 

St. Etienne. 168,000 


EUROPE. 

United Kingdom (1921) 

London.7,476,00' 

Glasgow.1,038,000 

Birmingham. 919,000 

Liver^ol. 803,000 

Manchester. 731,000 

Sheffield. 491,000 

Leeds.. 458,000 

Edinburgh. 421,000 

Bristol . 377.000 

Kingsion-on-Hull... 287,000 

Bradford. 286,000 

Newcastle-on-Tyne. 275,000 

Nottingham. 263,OCK) 

Stoke up-Trent. .. . 240,000 

Leicester. 234,000 

Plymouth. 210,000 

Cardiff. 200,000 

Dundee. 168,000 

Southampton. 161,000 

Aberdeen. 159,000 

Coventry. 128,000 

Norwich. 120,000 

Irish Free State. 

Dublin. 427,000 

Germany (1922). 

Berlin.3,804.000 

Hamburg.1,026,000 

Leipzig. 637,000 

Cofojne. 634,000 

Munich. 631,000 

Dresden. 588.000 

Breslau. 528,000 

Essen. 439,000 

Frankfort-on-Main. 433,000 

Dusseldorf. 407,000 

Hanover. 393,00 

Nuremburg. 353,000 

Stuttgart. 309,000 

Chemnitz. 305,000 

Dortmund. 295,000 


Havre. 163,000 

Nice. 156,000 

Rouen. 124,000 

Spain (1920). 

Madrid. 751.000 

Barcelona. 710.000 

Valencia. 244.000 


Sweden (1922). 

Stockholm. 422,000 

Gotenborg. 227,000 

Austria (1920). 
Vienna.1,841,009, 

Hungary (1921). 
Budapest.1,185,000 

Czechoslovakia (1921). 

Prague. 676,000 

Brunn.. 222,000 

PoUnd (1921). 
Warsaw. 931,000 


Straslmurg. }5I’9??|Lodz. 4.52.000 

"""Lem^rg. 219,(X)0 

Vilna. 215,000 


Baltic States. 

Danzis (Dan.). 195,000 

Helsingfors (Fin.).. 189,(X)0 

Riga (Lat.). 185,000 

Reval (Est.). 123,000 

Seville. 206,000Kovno (Lith.). 90,000 


Portugal (1920). 

Lisbon. 490.000 

0 Oporto. 203,000 

Italy (1921). 

Naples. 780,000 

Milan. 718,000 

Rome. 691.000 

Turin. 502,000 

Palermo. 4(X),000 

Genoa. 301,000 

Catania. 255.000 

Florence. 254,(X)0 

Trieste. 239.000 

Bologna. 211,000 

Messina. 177,000 

Venice. 172,000 

Switzerland (1920). 

Zurich. 207,000 

Basel. 136,000 

Geneva. 135,000 

Bern. 105,000 

Belgium (1922). 

Brussels. 775,000 

Antwerp. 304,000 

Liege. 165,000 

Ghent. 165,000 

Netherlands (1921) 

Amsterdam. 647,000 

Rotterdam. 516,000 

The Hague. 355,000 

Utrecht. 140,000 


Denmark (1921). 

5 Copenhagen. 561,000 


Norway (1920). 

Christiania. 258,00' 

Bergen... 91,000 


Russia (1921). 

Moscow.1,028,000 

Petrograd. 706,000 

Odessa.. 432,000 

Kief. 366,000 


Roumania 
Bucharest. 


Bulgaria (1920). 

Sofia. 

Yugoslavia (1921). 
Belgrade. 112,000 


Haidarabad. 404,000 

Rangoon. 342,000 

DelB. 304,000 

Lahore. 282,(K)0 

Ahmeiabad.. 274,000 

Lucknow. 241,000 

Ceylon (1921). 
Colombo. 249,000 

Indo-China (1921). 

Bangkok (Siam)(’20) 630,000 

Singapore (Brit.)... 387,000 

Hanoi (Fr.) (’21)... 74,000 

Japan (1920). 

Tokyo....,.2,173,000 

Osaka.1,253,000 

Kobe. 609,000 

Kyoto. 591,000 

Yokohama. 423,000 

East Indies. 

Manila (’18). 284,000 

Batavia (’20). 139,000 


Afghanistan (est.) 
Kabul. 150,000 

Persia (estimated). 

Teheran. 220,000 

Tabriz... 200,000 

Southwestern Asia. 


Mosul (Iraq). 350,000 

Bagdad (Iraq). 250,000 

154 niNJDamascus (Syr.)... 170,000 

Aleppo (Syr.). 140.000 

Brusadur.). 110,000 

Beirut (^r.). 80,000 

Mekka (Hed.). 70,000 

Jerusalem (PB.). ... 63,000 


(1920). 

. .. 600.000 


Asiatic Russia (1920). 

Tifiis. 347.000 

Baku. 263,000 

Tashkent. 245,000 

Omsk. 135,000 

Irkutsk. 104,000 

Kokan. 119,000 

Tomsk. il9,(X)0 

Vladivostok. 90,000 


Greece (1920). 

-Athens. 293,000 

Salonica... 170,000 

Turkey (1920). 

Constantinople.1.000,000 

ASIA. 

China (est., 1921) 

Shanghai.1,500,000 

Hankau.1,468,000 

Pekin.1,300,000 

Canton. 900,000 

Hangchau. 892,000 

Tientsin. 800,000 

Hongkong. 626,000 

Changsha.. 536,000 

Suchau. 500,000 

Chungking. 497.000 

Nanking. 38i),000 AUSTRALIA, etc. (1921) 

. • ■ ■ 320,000 Sidney. 898,000 

Melbourne. 795,000 


AFRICA. 

Cairo (’17). 791,000 

Alexandria (’17).... 445,000 

.Algiers (’21). 207.000 

Tunis (’21). 172,000 

Fez (’21). 71,000 

Johannesburg (’ 21 ). 

Cape Town ^21)... 


284,000 

207.000 


British India (1921). 

Calcutta.1,328,000 

0|Bombay.'.....1,176,000 


Madras. 527,000 Hobart 


Adelaide. 261,000 

Brisbane. 210,000 

Auckland (N. Z.)... 164,000 


52,000 




























































































































































































































































































































































STATISTICAL TABLES. 


169 ' 


Many references have been made to these tables in the preced¬ 
ing lessons, and you have become accustomed to using them; 
but a great deal more may be learned from a more careful study 
of them. A noted German author has said that “ figures show 


how the world is governed.” Whether this is true or not, it is 
certainly true that figures show how the commerce of the world 
is carried on. The questions which follow are suggestive of 
some things that these figures teach. 


TABLE III.* LEADING EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1920. 


Leading Exports. 

Value. 

Leading Countries to which Sent. 

Leading Ports from which Sent. 

Raw Cotton. 

Iron and Steel Goods. 

Breadstuffs. 

Meat and Dairy Products. 

Mineral Oils. 

Manufactured Cotton. 

Cars, Automobiles, and other Vehicles 

Tobacco. 

Leather and Leather Goods. 

Coal and Coke.,. 

Timber, Lumber, and Furniture. 

Chemicals, Drugs, and Dyes. 

Coffee. 

Sugar.. 

Fruits and Nuts. 

Cottonseed Oil. 

Electrical Machinery. 

Paper. 

All others... 

$1,381,707,000 
932,675,000 
808,471,000 
771,006,000 
426,498,000 
364,036,000 
338,532,000 
332 491,000 
291,828,000 
178,908,000 
168,574,000 
159.010,000 
150,497,000 
131,777,000 
118,326,000 
96,225,000 
87,208,000 
73,717,000 
I-301.553.000 

United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, France, Spain. 

Japan, United Kingdom. Canada, France, Italy. 

United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium. 

United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, France 

United Kingdom, France, China, Canada. Belgium. 

Cuba, Canada, Central America, United Kingdom, China 

France, United Kingdom, Canada, Italy, India. 

United Kingdom, Belgium, France, China, Italy. 

United Kingdom, Cuba, Denmark, France, Norway. 

Canada, Italy, Netherlands, Cuba, Argentina. 

United Kingdom, Cuba, Argentina, Canada, France. 

Japan, United Kingdom, India, China, Canada. 

Japan, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden. 

France, United Kingdom, Norway, Switzerland, Spain. . . 

United Kingdom, Canada, France, Denmark, Cuba. 

Canada, Italy, Norway, France, Netherlands*.. 

Argentina, Cuba, Japan, China, Brazil. 

Galveston, Savannah, New Orleans, New York. 

New York, Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit. 

New York, Baltimore, Galveston, New Orleans. 

New York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia. 

New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Francisco- 
New York, Boston, San Francisco. 

New York, Detroit. 

New York, New Orleans, Baltimore. 

New York, Boston. 

Buffalo, Cleveland. 

New Orleans, Mobile, Pensacola, Detroit. 

New York, Port Arthur, Detroit. 

New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia. 

New York. 

New York, San Francisco. 

New York, New Orleans. 

New York. 

New York. 

Total Exports. 

Total Imports. 

8,111,039,000 

5,238.621,000 



Balance of Trade in favor of U. S. 

$2,872 418.000 




Our largest single export is raw cotton. Why is more cotton shipped 
through the ports of Galveston and New Orleans than through New York ? 
Why is Great Britain so large a purchaser of our goods ? What coun¬ 
tries buy our manufactured cotton ? What do you know of the indus¬ 
tries of these countries ? What can you say of the industries of those 


countries that buy our agricultural implements ? What is exported from> 
Cleveland? From Buffalo ? From San Francisco ? Why ? Why are more 
goods exported from New York than from other ports? Select countries 
that are the largest buyers of foods. Why is this ? What countries buy 
our raw materials ? Why ? What countries buy our manufactures ? Why ?- 


TABLE IV. LEADING IMPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1920. 


Leading Imports. 


Value. 


Leading Countries, from which Obtained. 


Leading Ports or Districts at which Entered 


Sugar and Molasses. 

Raw Silk. 

Hides and Skins. 

Coffee. 

India Rubber. 

Raw Wool. 

OUs. 

Chemicals. 

Wood, and Manufactures of 

Raw Cotton. 

Fibers, Manufactured. 

Fruits and Nuts. 

Precious Stones. 

Seeds. 

Manufactured Cotton. 

Furs. 

Tin. 

Copper. 

Manufactured Silk. 

Fibers, Raw. 

Leaf Tobacco. 

Cocoa, and Manufactures of 

Paper. 

Breadstuffs. 

Animals. 

Vegetables. 

Manufactured Wool. 

Meat and Dairy Products-.. 
All others. 


$907,031,000 

454.573,000 

376,892,000 

310,701,000 

280,358,000 

212,848,000 

195,141,000 

177,969,000 

157,367,000 

156,918,000 

141,389,000 

124,773,000 

114,019,000 

113,032,000 

111,874,000 

103,792,000 

92,798,000 

90,008,000 

87,728,000 

86,630,000 

78,164,000 

73.573.000 

63,407,000 

59,977,000 

49,136,000 

46,569,000 

43,537.000 

42,424,000 

486,013,000 


Cuba, Hawaii, Porto Rico, South America, Santo Domingo... . 

Japan, China, Italy...! • ■ ■ 

Argentina, India, China, Brazil, Norway... 

Brazil, Colombia, Central America, Venezuela, Dutch E. Indies 
British East Indies, Dutch East Indies, United Kingdom, Brazil 
Argentina, United Kingdom, Uruguay, South Africa, Chile... . 

Me.xico, Kwantung, Japan," Spain, Italy. 

Switzerland, Germany.. 

Canada, Sweden, Central America, Norway. 

Egypt, United Kingdom, Peru, Mexico, China. 

India, United Kingdom... 

Central America, France, British Oceania. 

Netherlands, United Kingdom, France. 

Argentina, Canada, France, Italy. 

United Kingdom, Switzerland, France. 

United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, China, Japan. 

Straits Settlements, United Kingdom, Dutch E. India, Hongkong 

Mexico. Chile, Peru, Canada, Cuba. 

Japan, France, Switzerland, United Kingdom, China. 

Mexico, Philippines, India, West Africa. 

Cuba, Turkey, Greece. Dutch East Indies, Netherlands. 

British West Africa, Brazil, Ecuador, Santo Domingo. 

Canada, United Kingdom. 

Canada, Argentina. 

Canada, Mexico. 

Canada, Bermuda. 

United Kingdom, France. 

Canada, Argentina. 


N. Y., N. Orleans, Phila., Boston, San. Fr., Galveston. 
Seattle, Ogdensburg, San Francisco, New York. 

New York, Boston, Philadelphia. 

New York, New Orleans, San Francisco. 

New York, Boston. 

Boston, New York, Philadelphia. 

New York. Philadelphia, San Francisco. 

New York, Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco. 

New York, Ogdensburg, Boston, Portland. 

Boston, New York, El Paso. 

New York, Boston, New Orleans, Philadelphia. 

New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, Phila., Boston- 
New York. 

Buffalo, New York, Cleveland, Duluth. 

New York, Chicago, Philadelphia. 

New York, Duluth, San Francisco. 

New York, Boston, Philadelphia. 

New York, Nogales, Seattle, Pembina, Baltimore. 

New York, Bridgeport, Philadelphia, Chicago. 

New York, Boston, New Orleans, Mobile, Seattle. 

New York, Tampa, Key West, Philadelphia, Chicago. 
New York. 

New York, Detroit, Ogdensburg, Seattle. 

New York, Buffalo, Galveston, San Francisco. 

Buffalo, Nogales, El Paso, Pembina, Duluth. 

New York, Ogdensburg, Boston, Portland, Newport. 
New York, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago. 


Total Imports 


$5,238,621,000 


Where is raw sugar refined (Index).? What kind of sugar do 
we get from each country named.? About how much is the 
value per person of our sugar import.? Of the coffee import.? 
What kind of raw fiber do we get from each country named.? 
Compare the industries of these countries with those of the coun¬ 
tries where we buy manufactured fiber. What use have we for 
the cotton of Egypt and Peru.? What port receives wool 
and cotton, and why .? Why is India a large exporter of hides.? 
(Brahmanism (LXIX) forbids the use of any part of a dead ani¬ 


mal.) What is the location of the countries supplying rubber.?" 
Where are rubber goods made (see Index).? Compare our export 
of tobacco with our import. Make similar comparisons in regard 
to leather, steel, fruits, and copper. Explain why these articles 
are both imports and exports. Notice that some articles are 
imported as raw materials and exported as manufactured goods ; 
others, like fruits and tobacco, differ in kind; still other goods 
are imported because of convenience. Canadian coal, for example,, 
is nearer to some parts of our country than the home supply. 


* For Tables I and H, see pages 8 and 14, Lessons in Commercial Geography. 










































































































STATISTICAL TABLES. 


170 


Ports of Entry. — The foreign trade of a country is carried on* 
through certain seaports designated by the government as “Ports of 
Entry.” Such a port with the neighboring territory is known as a 
■‘‘Customs District.” It contains a custom house with a corps of 
officers who inspect all goods entering the port from foreign countries 
.and collect the duty as fixed by the tariff laws. Each lot of imported 
goods is accompanied by an invoice, or fist, which has been inspected 
•and signed by our consul at the foreign port from which the goods were 
shipped, and by a bill of lading signed by the transportation company 
which receives them from the exporter. It is the duty of the customs 
inspector to see that the goods delivered to the importer are the same 
in amount and value as those described in the invoice. 'When such is 
the case the merchant may call at the custom house, pay the duty, and 
receive his goods. 

For the convenience of importers who do not wish their goods at once, or 
who live in inland towns, goods are stored in “bonded” warehouses or shipped 
“in bond” to the port of entry nearest the importer, who in either case must 
pay all expense of carriage besides the duty. The importance of a port of 
■entry is measured by the value of the goods exported and imported, or by 
the number and tonnage (carrying capacity) of the ships entering and leaving 
during the year. Table V shows the rank of our chief seaports during the 
year ending June 30 , 1920 . 

TABLE V. 


Fokeign Commerce of the United States for Year Ending June 30, 1920, 
BY Customs Districts. 


District. 

Total Commerce. 

Value of Imports. 

Value of Exports. 

New York. 

$6,288,287,521 

$2,904,648,933 

83,383,638,588 

New Orleans. 

841,997,012 

252,587,790 

589,409,222 

Boston. 

737,861,241 

456,246,322 

281,614,910 

Philadelphia. .. 

668,859,306 

219,167,601 

449,691,705 

Galveston.•. 

621,304,744 

23,065,517 

598,239,227 

San Francisco. 

486,074,349 

252,419,576 

233,654,773 

Detroit. 

431,005,042 

91,160,552 

339,844,490 

Seattle .. 

401,716,344 

173,527,650 

228,188,694 

Baltimore. 

394,845,957 

55,884,514 

338,961,443 

Savannah. 

349,370,896 

38,199,507 

311,171,389 

Buffalo. 

338,810,086 

95,604,786 

233,205,300 

Ogdensburg. 

315,679,537 

199,706,646 

115,972,891 

Norfolk. 

236,296,204 

10,287,916 

226,008,288 

St. .Albans. 

153,900,304 

64,115,982 

89,784,322 

Pembina. 

132,507,255 

65,894,798 

86,612,457 

Tampa. 

113,689,432 

17,534,450 

96,154,982 

Mobile. 

93,637,104 

5,854,403 

87,782,701 

Port -Arthur. 

79,941,865 

5,175,945 

74,765,920 

Chicago. 

74,354,910 

56,179,293 

18,175,617 

Other Districts. 

569,522,292 

251,359,487 

328,062,805 

Totals. 

813,349,661,401 

$5,238,621,668 

$8,111,039,733 


Tonnage of Leading Ports in Foreign Commerce 1910 


Ports. 

American Vessels. 

Foreign Vessels. 

Aggregate 

Tonnage. 

New York. 

11,153,744 

5,941,396 

3,361,586 

3,007,921 

2,157,647 

1.884.891 
1,804,472 

2.994.892 
1,382,450 
1,436,236 

11,799,503 

17,248,137 

2,087,389 

3,249,492 

3,098,208 

3,863,553 

2,734,133 

2,485,281 

881,927 

1,672,934 

1,167,258 

59,470,013 

28,401,881 

8,028,78s 

6,611,078 

6,106,129 

6,021,200 

4,619,024 

4,299,753 

3,876,819 

3,055,384 

2,603,494 

71,269,516 

Cleveland. 

New Orleans. 

Philadelphia. 

'Seattle. 

Baltimore. 

Norfolk. 

Detroit. 

Boston. 

Galveston. 

Gther ports. 

Totals. 

46,924,738 

97,958,325 

144,883,063 


QUESTIONS ON TABLE V. 

What part of our exports goes through the port of New York? What part 
of our imports? Why does New York have so large a share of the foreign 
trade? Compare the exports of New Orleans and Galveston with their 
imparts. Why are the former so much larger? Name products that could 


TABLE VI. 

Commerce of the Principal Countries of the World; Commerce with the 
United States; Total Foreign CoiiMERCE. 


Countries in 
Order of Total 
Commerce with 
United States. 

Exports to 
United States 
Year Ending 
June 30, 1920. 

Imports from 
United States 
Year Ending 
June 30, 1920. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Year. 

L^nitedKingdom 

$524,020,000 

82,151,336,000 

83,885,282,000 

$7,941,650,000 

1019 

Canada. 

537,377,000 

890,135,000 

1,216,444,000 

916,429,000 

1919 

Cuba. 

645,572,000 

396,595,000 

407,284,000 

294,632,000 

1918 

Japan. 

527,221,000 

453,147,000 

961,639,000 

826,557,000 

1918 

France. 

172,023,000 

716,812,000 

1,681,641,000 

5,747,254,000 

1919 

Italy. 

92,420,000 

398,066,000 

479)320,000 

2,721,617,000 

1918 

China. 

266,888,000 

119,144,000 

579,561,000 

689,014,000 

1918 

Argentina. 

257,783,000 

167,147,000 

773,415,000 

483,082,000 

191S 

Brazil. 

281,218,000 

115,020,000 

297,674,000 

257,033.000 

1918 

Netherlands . .. 

1 00,6 3 .000 

254,450,000 

336,673,000 

435,000,000 

1917 

Belgium. 

29,748,000 

317,013,000 

441,801,000 

977,749.000 

1919 

Me.xico. 

i68,.i.^4,ooo 

143,786,000 

198,345)000 

88,813,000 

1918 

Germany. 

45,086,000 

202,176,000 

2,5CX5,000,000 

2,CXX5,OCX>,CXX) 

(est.) 

Straits Settle- 




ments. 

188,283,000 

14,874.000 

349,541,000 

396,663,000 

1918 

Spain. 

49,417,000 

123,909,000 

298,324,000 

166,971,000 

1917 

Chile. 

112,674,000 

44,29i,cxx> 

278,567,000 

144,188,000 

1918 

Sweden . 

21,617,000 

I2Q,I7Q,CKX> 

361,680,000 

203,308,000 

1917 

Philippines. 

72,962,000 

71,009,000 

122 ,729,OCX) 

107,774,000 

1919 

Australia. 

56,772,000 

85,791,000 

346,492,000 

295,160,000 

1918 

Dutch E. Indies 

95,801,000 

45,647,000 

312,174,000 

186,835,000 

1917 

Denmark. 

13,792,000 

125,171,000 

259,340,000 

290,099,003 

1917 

Egypt. 

105,873,000 

27,230,000 

236,294,000 

266,216,000 

1918 

Norway. 

15,023,000 

115,333,000 

211,188,000 

445,230,000 

1917 

Colombia. 

54,160,000 

52,123,000 

1 

00 

0" 

28,868,000 

1916 

Switzerland.... 

46,394,000 

49,416,000 

464,442,000 

464,193,000 

1917 

Turkey. 

51,981,000 

42,038,000 

94 ,io 5 ,cxx> 

96,930,000 

1914 

South Africa. .. 

36,514,000 

48,703,000 

140,704,000 

230,659,000 

1918 

Russia. 

14,843,000 

66,212,000 

206,945,000 

586,360,000 

191S 

Uruguay. 

52,119,000 

27,806,000 

95,662,000 

68,837,000 

1917 

Peru. 

44,121,000 

34,703,000 

97,197,000 

47,230,000 

1918 

Greece. 

22,230,000 

48,708,000 

21,895,000 

43,366,000 

1917 

Dominican Rcd. 

30,365,000 

38,008,000 

22,2I3,CXX) 

19,736,000 

1918 

Venezuela. 

32,925,000 

25,922,000 

19,813,000 

15,434,000 

1918 

BritishW.Indie? 

20,779,000 

36,749,000 

62,198,000 

66,597,000 

1919 

New Zealand... 

18,301,000 

33,762,000 

134,926,000 

117,435,000 

1918 

Poland and 






Danzig. 

207,000 

50,340,000 

i40,cx>o,ocx) 

115,000,000 

(est.) 

BritishW. Africa 

31,147,000 

19,213,000 

87,485,000 

72,297,000 

1919 

Austria and 






Hungary. 

2,809,000 

34,681,000 

307,545,000 

893,215,000 

1917 

Panama. 

8,366,000 

26,798,000 

5,190,000 

7,822,000 

1918 

Haiti. 

9,859,000 

21,964,000 

17,000,000 

10 ,000,000 

(est.) 

All others. 

380,960,000 

341,632,000 

15,206,123,000 

8,971,708,000 


Total. 

$5,238,620,000 

.$8,111,038,000 

$33,689,660,000 

537,736,961,000 



be most cheaply exported by way of Boston. Galveston. Philadelphia. 
San Francisco. What part of our trade is carried in foreign ships ? Which 
three ports receive the most foreign goods ? Can you give a reason for this ? 
Are they large cities ? Are they good distributing points ? Have they great 
capital to carry on extensive business? How can the business of a seaport 
be increased ? The business of New Orleans has been increased by improved 
navigation on the Mississippi and the lowering of railroad freight rates from 
the grain and meat producing regions. How does this help the producer ? 

QUESTIONS ON TABLE VI. , 

Find countries whose imports exceed their exports; find other countries 
whose exports exceed their imports; compare these countries as to population, 
industries, and wealth. How can you explain the small import of Egypt and 
Straits Settlements from the United States ? What countries have a balance 
of trade against them ? Which countries have large balances in their favor ? 
Are such countries richest? Which five countries sell us the most goods? 
What are these goods (Table IV) ? Which five buy the most of us ? Of 
what do their purchases consist ? 

Compare our trade with the countries most distant from us. With that 
of those nearest to us. How does distance affect trade? Why has Great 
Britain a larger trade with these distant countries than the United States? 
What part of the imports of Germany, Great Britain, France, Netherlands, 
and Belgium come from the United States? What part of their exports do 
we buy ? What do we buy of Mexico ? Why is our trade with New Zealand 
so small ? Why are our imports from Japan and Cuba so large ? Compare 
these imports with those from Belgium. 





























































































STATISTICAL TABLE VIL 


171 


St.\te8 and Territories 

Corn. 

Bushels. 

Wlieat, 

Bushels. 

Oats, 

Bushels. 

Rye. 

Bushels. 

Alabama. 

62,843,000 

1,242.000 

6,696,000 

38,000 

Arizona. 

1.287.000 

1,204,000 

533.000 


Arkansas. 

48.726,000 

3,230.000 

9,240.000 

28,000 

Cailfomla. 

2,871,000 

10.335.000 

5,250.000 


Colorado. 

11.206.000 

17,645,000 

6.524,000 

1,258,000 

Connecticut. 

3,300,000 

— 

620,000 

220.000 

Delaware. 

0,900,000 

1.740,000 

115.000 

26,000 

Florida. 

12,600.000 

— 

1.140,000 


Georgia... 

09,890,000 

2,520,000 

10,800,000 

294,000 

•Idaho. 

840,000 

18,705,000 

7,700.000 

135,000 

Illinois. 

301,000.000 

65,675,000 

123,060,000 

4,125,000 

•Indiana. 

175,750.000 

46.020,000 

60.275.000 

5.320.000 

dowa. 

416,000,000 

23,675,000 

196,182.000 

1,113,000 

Kansas. 

09,362.000 

151,001.000 

44,229.000 

2,520,000 

Kentucky. 

82,500,000 

12,029,000 

9,900,000 

741,000 

[x»uisiana. 

32.575.000 

— 

1.650,000 


Maine. 

1,100.000 

228.000 

5,746,000 

■ 

Maryland . 

28,413,000 

10,665,000 

1,820,000 

420,000 

Massachusetts. 

2,640.000 

— 

570,000 

115,000 

Michigan. 

64,350,000 

20,237,000 

36,875,000 

13,500,000 

Minnesota. 

118,000,000 

37,710,000 

90.160,000 

7,830,000 

Mississippi. 

59,700,000 

504.000 

5,282,000 


Missouri. 

155,412.000 

57,886,000 

38,259.000 

720,000 

Montana. 

1,728,000 

10,729,000 

6.120.000 

272.000 

Nebraska. 

184,186.000 

60,675,000 

69,962,000 

6,650,000 

Nevada. 

90,000 

668,000 

384.000 

_ 

New Hampshire. 

1,050,000 

— 

1,221,000 

_ 

New Jersey. 

10.800,000 

1,962,000 

2,460,000 

1,296,000 

New Mexico. 

7,200,000 

6,100,000 

2,340.000 

__ 

New York. 

35,260.000 

11,178,000 

29,580.000 

1,932,000 

North Carolina. 

55.100;000 

7,226,000 

3,767,000 

810,000 

North Dakota. 

16.764,000 

53,613,000 

38.400.000 

15,560,000 

Ohio. 

162.800,000 

64.440,000 

51,858,000 

1,886.000 

Oklahoma. 

74.400,000 

52.640.000 

49,500,000 

350,000 

Oregon. 

1,860,000 

20,495,000 

11,104.000 

582.000 

Pennsylvania. 

72,192,000 

20,055.000 

36,859.000 

3,648,000 

Rhode Island. 

495,000 

— 

68,000 


South Carolina. 

37,440,000 

1,836,000 

11,730.000 

17,000 

South Dakota. 

91.200.000 

30.175.000 

53,650,000 

6,500,000 

Tennessee. 

74.750,000 

7.290,000 

9,200.000 

279,000 

Texas. 

202.800.000 

31,350,000 

94,500.000 

119,000 

Utah. 

432,000 

3,682,000 

2,448.000 

126,000 

Vermont. 

2.120.000 

252,000 

3.960.000 

17,000 

Virginia.. 

44.800.000 

12.508,000 

5.280.000 

828,000 

Washington. 

1,620.000 

40.100,000 

12.800,000 

240.000 

West Virginia. 

24,990.000 

5,400,000 

4,750.000 

260,000 

Wisconsin. 

85.540,000 

7,355,000 

78,123,000 

8,295,000 

Wyoming. 

768,000 

4.008,000 

5.670,000 

252.000 

Hawaii. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Porto Rico. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Philippine Islands. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Virgin Islands. 

— 

— 

— - 

— 

Total . 

2,917,450,000 

940.087.000 

1.24S,3]0.0<)() 

88.478.000 


STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1919. 


Barley, 

Bushels. 


1,102,000 


875.000 

720.000 

420,000 

375.000 

4,140.000 

13,568.000 

525.000 


165,710.000 


Rice, 

Bushels. 

Cotton, 

Bales. 

Potatoes, 

Bushels. 

Hay. 

Tons. 

Tobacco, 

Pounds. 

Flaxseed 

Bushels. 

Cane 

Sugar, 

Tons, 

beet 

Sugar, 

Tons. 

Swine, 

Sheep, 

1 Wool, 
Pounds 

16,000 

715,000 

3,520,000 

1,367,000 

1,890.000 

_ 


_ 

2,223,000 

137,000 

40j,oro 


75,000 

350,000 

670,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

58.000 

1,300,000 

5,236,01,^/ 

6,162,000 

830,000 

3,321.000 

770,000 

456,000 


— 

— 

1.725.000 

201,000 

422,0(-<) 

7,881,000 

102,000 

11,352,000 

4,267,000 

— 

— 

— 

127,907 

1,003,000 

2,972,000 

13.298,000 


— 

11,040,000 

2,396,000 

— 

— 

— 

198,881 

406,000 

2,121,000 

8,983.000 

— 

— 

1,680,000 

544.000 

39.000.000 


— 

— 

83,000 

29,000 

84,000 

— 

— 

913.000 

105.000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

71,000 

10,000 

31,000 

42,000 

17,000 

1,824,000 

141.000 

3,990,000 


— 

— 

1,512,000 

107,000 

460,000 

29,000 

1,730,000 

1,610,000 

613,000 

16,480,000 


— 

- — 

3.043.000 

125,000 

422,000 

— 

— 

5,400.000 

1,625.000 

— 

— 

— 

25.867 

208,000 

3,234,000 

22,145,000 

— 

— 

8,060,000 

4,810,000 

525,000 

— 

— 

— 

5,724,000 

1,010,000 

4,129.000 

— 

— 

4,400,000 

3.080,000 

15,215,000 

— 

— 

— 

4,668,000 

1,089,000 

5,337,000 

— 

— 

4,945,000 

5,181,000 

— 

152,000 

— 

— 

10,822,000 

1,321.000 

5,000,000 

— 

— 

5,168.000 

4,507,000 

— 

88,000 

— 

— 

2,381,000 

506,000 

1,754.000 

— 

— 

5,040.000 

1.561.000 

456.500,000 

— 

— 

— 

1,768,000 

1.236,000 

3,211,000 

19,712,000 

300,000 

1,600,000 

450,000 

174,000 

—■ 

280,900 

— 

1,575,000 

230,000 

612.000 

— 

— 

24,480,000 

1,456,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

110,000 

180.000 

936,000 

— 

— 

5,170,000 

630,000 

19,575.000 

— 

— 

— 

427,000 

260,000 

812,000 

— 

— 

2.970,000 

656,000 

15,400.000 

— 

— 

— 

147,000 

30,000 

125,000 

— 

— 

28.688.000 

3,180,000 

— 

— 

— 

132,268 

1,355,000 

2,224,000 

9.554,000 

— 

— 

26.100.000 

3,800,000 

— 

2,880,000 

— 

— 

2,784,000 

668,000 

3,594,000 

96,000 

946,000 

1.530,000 

. 648,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2,282,000 

175,000 

656,000 

23,000 

60.000 

8.250,000 

3,794,000 

3,500,000 

48,000 

— 

— 

4,629,000 

1,525,000 

7.614.000 

— 

— 

2,820,000 

827,000 

— 

697,000 

— 

— 

200,000 

2.791,000 

17.751,000 

— 

— 

6.325.000 

4,299,000 

— 

15.000 

— 

65,550 

3.825.000 

323.000 

1,730,000 

— 

— 

900.000 

526,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

40,000 

1.596,000 

10,500.000 

— 

— 

2.400.000 

675,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

66,000 

39,000 

202,000 

— 

— 

10.560,000 

488,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

200,000 

30,000 

92.000 

— 

— 

495.000 

646,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

87,000 

2,538.000 

15.076,000 

— 

— 

39,567,000 

6,579,000 

3,483,000 

— 

— 

— 

800,000 

824,000 

4.022,000 

10,000 

875.000 

4,930,000 

1.040,000 

310,240.000 

— 

— 

— 

1,546.000 

144,000 

687,000 

— 

— 

5.670.000 

908.000 

— 

3,800,000 

— 

— 

475,000 

286,000 

1.664.000 

— 

— 

9,300,000 

3,973,000 

77.400.000 

— 

— 

30,165 

4,266,000 

3,010.000 

13,104.000 

— 

930.000 

3,520,000 

1,540,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1.036,000 

131,000 

526,000 


— 

4.230.000 

1,452,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

330.000 

2,547.000 

14,040.000 

— 

— 

25,400.000 

4.318.000 

54,120,000 

— 

— 

— 

1.380.000 

939,000 

5,013,000 

— 

— 

425.000 

86,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

15,000 

6,000 

25,000 

90,000 

1.475.000 

2,295.000 

358,000 

81,000,000 

— 

— 

— 

1,056,000 

27,000 

103.000 

■ 

— 

4,500,000 

1,558,000 

— 

1,160,000 

— 

— 

1,730,000 

850,000 

5,222.000 


298,000 

3.120.000 

1,792,000 

88,000,000 

— 

— 

— 

1,965,000 

584,000 

2.052.000 

6,998,000 

2,700.000 

3,796,000 

1.258.000 

— 

— 

1.125 

— 

2,320,000 

2,790,000 

14,986,000 


— 

2,397.000 

938.000 

— 

— 

— 

119,825 

133,000 

2.245,000 

15.800.000 

— 

— 

3,125,000 

1.456,000 

— 

— 

— 


120,000 

105,000 

690.000 

— 

22.000 

11,495,000 

1,650.000 

131,100.000 

— 

— 


1,094,000 

714,000 

1,962,000 

— 


7,250.000 

1,906,000 

- # 

— 

— 

■*-> 08 • 
^ 

317.000 

757,000 

5,779.000 

— 

& V ^ 

5,130,000 

1,215,000 

10,500,000 

— 

— 


439,000 

772,000 

2.943.000 

— 


28,200,000 

4,738.000 

60.960,000 

03,000 

— 

13,849 

2,070,000 

687,000 

3,306,000 

— 


2,640,000 

853,000 

— 

16,000 

— 

— 

70,000 

3,200.000 

33.415.000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

000,312 

— 

— 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

363.474 

— 

— 

— 

ii o * 25 w 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

215.343 

— 

— 

— 

= & w g* - 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9.212 

— 

— 

— 


41.059,000 

11.030.000 

357.901.000 

91,326,001) 

1,389.458,000 

8,919,000 

1,470,366 

763,848 

74.584,000 

48.615.000 

265,460 000 


States axd Territouiks. 


Alabama. 

-Arizona. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

I-'lorldu. 

■Georgia. 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansiis. 

Kentucky. 

I-oulslana. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts. . . 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. . . . 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Montana. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

New Hampshire. 

New Jersey. 

New Mexico. 

New York. 

North Carolina. . 
North Dakota. . 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. . . • 
Rhode Island.... 
South Carolina. . . 
South Dakota. . . 

Tennessee. 

Texa.s. 

Utah. 

Vermont. 

Virginia. 

Washington. 

West Virginia... 

Wisconsin. 

Wyoming. 

Alaska. 

Hawaii. 

Porto Rico. 

Philippine Islands. 
Canal Zone, etc.* . 

Total... 


F AGRICULTURE. 

— (Cont.) 


1 STATISTICS OF MINING. 

{AREA. 

Milk 

Cows. 

Other 

Cattle. 

Horses. 

Mules. 

Coal (1918) 
Long Tons. 

1 Pig Iron 

1 (1919), 

1 Tons. 

Copper 

(1916), 

Pounds. 

Gold 

(1919), 

Dollars. 

Silver 

(1919), 

Dollars. 

Petroleum 

(1918), 

Barrels. 

Lead 

(1910) 

Totis. 

i 

Square 

Miles. 

502.0(K 

842.000 

158.00( 

316,000 

17,129.430 

2.130.092 


_ 


_ 

_ 

Sl.OGoj 

57,000 

1.200.000 

132.000 

10,000 


— 

694,847.307 

4,176.500 

4.816,033 

— 

15,328 

113,956 

452,000 

691,000 

266,000 

324.000 

1,988,722 


— 

— 

— 

— 

170 

53,335i 

571.000 

1,634,000 

400.000 

59,000 

— 

— 

43,400,876 

17.380.000 

1,349,508 

97,531,997 

3,633 

158.297| 

272,000 

1,355.000 

427,000 

31,000 

11,078,188 

375.587 

9,536,193 

9.736.400 

6,775,438 

143,286 

33,046 

103,94^ 

118,000 

80,000 

43.000 


— 

13.67S 


— 

— 

— 

— 

4,965[ 

46,000 

24,00t) 

34.000 

6,000 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2,370 

156,000 

945,000 

60.000 

40,000 

■■ i 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

58,666 

461,000 

. 771.000 

132,000 

351,000 

59,568 


803,699 

1,000 

— 

— 

— 

59,265 

136,000 

537,000 

270,000 

4,000 


— 

7,248,794 

710.400 

6.772.194 

— 

170.059 

84,313 

724,000 

764.000 

821,000 

03.000 

79,724,201 

2,558,213 


— 

— 

13.365.974 

670 

56,665] 

. 1,060,000 

1.290.000 

1.422,000 

147.000 

27,391.638 


— 

— 

— 

877,558 

— 

36,3541 

. 1,353,000 

2,775,000 

1,505,000 

71,000 

7,314.460 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Se.UT' 

935.000 

2.161.000 

1,153,000 

260,000 

6.751.738 

— 

— 

— 

— 

45,451.017 

1,737 

82.158 

457,000 

580,000 

429,000 

231.000 

28.225.551 

413,091 

— 

— 

— 

4,376.342 

37 

40.59S 

378,000 

725,000 

215,000 

166.000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

16.042.600 

— 

48,506 

179,000 

143,000 

107,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

33,040 

180,000 

138.000 

168,000 

25,000 

4,015,444 

244.002 

126,965 

— 

— 

— 

— 

12,327 

159,000 

102,000 

52,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8,266 

873.000 

773,000 

640,000 

4.000 

1.307,873 

2,715.659 

269,794,531 

— 

— 

— 

— 

57,980 

. 1,395,000 

1.730,000 

940,000 

6,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

84,682 

571,000 

716,000 

261,000 

322.000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

46,865 

919,000 

1,746.000 

1,040,000 

378,000 

5.060,879 


377,575 

— 

— 

— 

218,253 

69,420 

180,000 

936,000 

518,000 

5,000 

4,046.879 

— 

352,139.768 

2.461.300 

16.746,090 

69.323 

4,961 

146.572 

601,000 

2,911,000 

1,018,000 

lOC.OOO 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

77,520 

35,000 

535.000 

75,000 

3,000 

— 

— 

100.816.724 

4,754,600 

8,196,164 

— 

11,858 

110,690 

103,000 

70,000 

40,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

—r 

— 

— 

46 

9,341 

153,000 

77,000 

88,000 

4,000 

— 

2,070,288 

4,115 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8,224 

87,000 

1,378,000 

232,000 

20,000 

3,592,178 

— 

79,863,439 

595,700 

798.932 

— 

3.290 

122,634 

1,493.000 

909,000 

560,000 

7,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

808.843 

— 

49,204 

328,000 

394.000 

183,000 

236.000 

1,268 

— 

5,961 

1,000 

55 

— 

— 

52,426 

464.000 

617,000 

825,000 

9,000 

642,619 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

70.83Z 

1,061,000 

1,113,000 

873,000 

28,000 

40,904.413 

7.102.627 

— 

— 

— 

7,285,005 

— 

41.040 

550,000 

1,300,000 

729,000 

288,000 

4,297,721 

— 

— 

— 

— 

103,347,070 

10,969 

70,057 

224.000 

1.634.000 

282,000 

10.000 

11,900 

— 

2,433,567 

1,071,800 

250,597 

— 

9 

96,699 

970,000 

727,000 

560,000 

46.000 

247.657,879 

12,276,585 

904 

— 

— 

7,407,812 

— 

45,126 

20,000 

14,000 

8,000 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1,248 

211,000 

249,000 

80,000 

206,000 

— 

— 

— 

100 

— 

— 

— 

30,989 

561,000 

1,526,000 

819,000 

15,000 

7,091 

— 

— 

5,267,600 

136,928 

— 

12 

77.615 

384,000 

593,000 

353,000 

278,000 

6,099.150 

190,514 

14.556,278 

.— 

— 

— 

— 

42,022 

1,138,000 

4.458,000 

1,199,000 

784.000 

2.018,871 

— 

86,463 

1,100 

605,527 

38,750,031 

26 

265,896 

109,000 

518,000 

145.000 

2,000 

4.586,4.51 

— 

232,335,950 

2,152,700 

13,345,010 

— 

111.789 

84.990 

278,000 

190.000 

85,000 

— 

— 

— 

324,400 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9,564 

437,000 

578,000 

362,000 

65,000 

• 9.187.329 

319,409 

1,066,143 

— 

— 

— 

740 

42,627 

228,000 

298,000 

303.000 

20,000 

3,644,832 

— 

2,473,481 

309,800 

354,220 

— 

217 

69,127 

250,000 

384,000 

192.000 

12,000 

80,299,856 

— 

— 

— 

— 

7,866,628 

— 

24,170 

1,846,000 

1.493,000 

680.000 

3,000 

— 

605.619 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3,121 

56,066 

82,000 

787,000 

225.000 

4,000 

8,427,400 

— 

1.784.351 

300 

46 

12,596,287 

— 

97,914 





67.505 

— 

113.823,064 

9,036.300 

1,201,705 

7,943 

659 

590,884 






_ 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6,449 



_ 

_ 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3.435 




_ 

- 

_ 

— 

826,100 

16.131 

— 

— 

115,026 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5,700 

181.197 

— 

113 

62.699 

23.747,000 

44.485,000 : 

21,109,000 ^ 

1.995.000 ( 

505.540.628 jl 

51.015.364 

1,927.850,548 . 

18,488,800 ( 

31,966,412 

355,927,716 

596,221 

3,805,212 4 


GROWTH IN POPULATION. 


1880. 


1.262,505 


3,077,871 

1,978.301 


1,783,085 

1,636,937 

780.773 

1.131,597 


452,402 

62,266 

346,991 

1,131,116 

5,082,871 

1,399,750 

3,198.062 

174,768 

4,282.891 

276,531 

995,577 

1,542,359 

1,591,749 

332,286 

1,512,565 

618,347 

1,315,497 


49.371.430 


1900. 

1910. 

1920. 

> 1,828,697 

2,138,003 

2,348,174 

— 

204.354 

333,903 

> 1,311,564 

1,574,449 

1,752,204 

i 1,485,053 

2,377.549 

3,426.861 

r 539,700 

799,024 

939,629 

) 908,420 

1,114,756 

1,380,631 

i 184.735 

202.322 

223.003 

528.542 

752,619 

968.470 

2,216,331 

2,609,121 

2,895.832 

161,772 

325,594 

431.866 

4.821,550 

5,638.591 

6,485.280 

2.516.462 

2.700.876 

2,930.390 

2.231.853 

2,224,771 

2,404.021 

1,470,495 

1.690.949 

1.769.257 

2.147.174 

2,289,905 

2.416.630 

1,381.625 

1,656.388 

1.798,509 

694,466 

742,371 

768,014 

1.188.044 

1,295.346 

1,449,661 

2,805,346 

3,366.416 

3,852,356 

2,420,982 

2.810.173 

3,668,412 

1,751,394 

2.075,708 

2,387,126 

1,551,270 

1,797.114 

1,790.618 

3,106,665 

3,293,335 

3,404,055 

243,329 

376,053 

548,889 

1,066.300 

1,192,214 

1,296,272 

42,335 

81,875 

77,407 

411,588 

430,572 

443,083 

1,833,669 

2,537,167 

3.155,900 

— 

327,301 

360,350 

7,268,894 

9,113,614 

10,384,829 

1,893,810 

2,206.287 

2,659,123 

319,146 

577,056 

645,680 

4,157,545 

4,767,121 

5.759.394 

t 790.391 

1,657.155 

2.028.283 

413.536 

672,765 

783,389 

6,302,115 

7,665,111 

8,720,017 

428,556 

542,610 

604,397 

1,340,316 

1,515.400 

1.683,724 

401,570 

683,888 

636.54T 

2,020.616 

2.184,789 

2,337,885 

3,048,710 

3.896.542 

4,663,228 

276.749 

373.351 

449,396 

343,641 

365,956 

352.428 

1,854,184 

2,061,612 

2.309.187 

518,103 

1,141,990 

1,356,621 

958,800 

1,221,119 

1,463,701 

2.069,042 

2,333.860 

2,632,067 

92,531 

145,965 

194.402 

63,592 

64,356 

54,899 

154.000 

191.909 

255,912 

953.243 

1.118,012 

1.299,809 

8,000,000 

7.635.426 

10,350.649 

— 

531,812 

625,049 

84,578,451 

101.182.712 

117.857.509 


* Part of Great Lakes. 61,730 sq. m. Tutuila. 77 sq. m. Guam, 210 sq. m. 


Canal Zone, 474 sq. m. St. Thomas, etc., 138 sq. m. District of Columbia, 70 sq. m. f Including Indian Territory. 

























































































































































































































































































TNI )EX—l^RONUNCI ATIONS 


Key to Pronunciation — Vowels r a in ale ; k in senate ; a in am ; a in care ; a in arm ; a in ask ; a in all; an in author, e in eve ; e in end ; 5 in fgrn ; g 

in they. I in ice ; i in Ill; i in pique, o in old ; 6 in odd ; 6 in 6r; g in dg ; 6 in son. u in use; u in up ; u in urn ; u in rude ; u in full ; ua = wa ; ue = we. 

y in by ; y in hymn, ou as in out; oi as in oil. 

Consonants : c or « as in can ; c as in ^ent (c as in can, if unmarked) ; g as in go ; g as in gem ; g as in go, if unmarked ; n = na-sal n. as in TouIon (like 

oiig) ; n = ng ; h like ny in barnyarci. iiu = kw. s as in .so ; s = z ; fh as in this. Italic letters are silent. Short vowels are not usually marked. 

Geographical names are divided into syllables and place of accent is marked ; but for the sake of simplicity and ease of reading, diacritical marks are often 
omitted when not necessary to prevent error. All index numbere refer to pages. 


At ys sin'i a, 165. 

Aberdeen' (S. D.), 70. 

A ca pul'co, 95. 

Ad diV A be'ba, 155. 

A'deiaide, 163. 

A'len (town and gulf), 
'16, 144. 

Ad Ir on'dack Mts., 30. 

A do roe, 74. 

A'drI an, 68. 

Ad ri at'ic, 112. 

Afghanistan', 146. 

Af ri ca, 160. 

A ga'iia, 83. 

Agriculture, 22 : in Africa, 
155, 166, 168, 160 ; Aus¬ 
tria, 128 ; Hungary, 128 ; 
British India, 144 ; Can¬ 
ada, 88 ; China, 140; 
Denmark, 124 ; France, 
119; Germany, 126; 
Great Britain, 115; 
Greece, 133 ; Italy, 122 ; 
Korea, 143; Nether¬ 
lands, 123; Roumania, 
132 ; Russia, 130; Si¬ 
beria, 148 ; South Amer¬ 
ica, 103, 108 ; Tasmania, 
163 ; Spain, 121 ; United 
States, 38 (see each 
State). 

A'guas ca li en'tes, 95. 

Ak'ron, 66. 

Alaba'ma, 57; river, 
..57. 

A la me'da, 80. 

A las'ka, 80. 

Al ba'ni a, 133. 

Al'ba ny, 46. 

Al ber'ta, 91 

Al'bert Nyan'za, 162. 

Al'bert Ed'ward Nyiin'- 
za, 152. 

Al bu quer que (-kar'ka), 
74. 

Alderneys, 118. 

A lep'po, 148. 

Al ex an'dri a, 155 ; La., 58; 
Va., 50. 

A leu'tian (-shan) Islands, 
81. 

Alfalfa, Kans., 73 ; Nebr., 
73. 

Al ge'ri a, 120, 156. 

Al gierj', 156. 

Alhambra, 121. 

Aik maar', 123 

Al le ghe'nj : plateau, 47 ; 
city, 47 ; Mts., 30 ; river, 
44. 

Alluvial, 44. 

Al ma'den, 121. 

Almonds, 79, 166. 

Aloes, 93 

Al pe'na, 68. 

Alps Mts., 110, 127. 

Al sace', 120. 

Al tap Mts., 136, 149. 

Al tgo'na, 47. 

Am'azon River, 100. 

Amber, 128. 

Ambri'z' (-br6sh'), 169. 

A miens f-ax'), 120. 

Am'sterdam (in Holland), 
123. 

A mur' River, 136, 148. 

An a con'da, 76. 

An a to'li a, 147. 


Andaman’, 144. 

Andean Plateau, 98 ; 

States, 104. 

An'derson, 65. 

An'de? Mts., 98. 

Andor'ra, 121. 

An'glesey, 116. 
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan', 
115, 154. 

AngO'la, 159. 

.4n-g6'ra, 147. 

Animals: in Africa, 154; 
in Asia, 138; in Au.s- 
tralia, 161; in Europe, 
114; in So. America, 102 
An nap'6 lis, 49. 

Ann Arbor, 68. 

An'niston, 67 
Ant'arc tic Ocean, 16. 
Antelope, 164. 

An ti cos'ti, 89. 

An ti'gua, 94. 

Antil'les, 96. 

An- ti-sa'na, peak of, 19. 
An to fagas'ta, 107. 
Ant'werp, 124. 

Ap a lach'ee Bay, 63. 

Ap a lach i co'la River, 53. 
Ap en nines, 122. 

Ap pa lach'i an Highland, 
26, 40; climate, 30; 
products, 30. 

Ap'ple ton, 69. 

A ra'bi a, 146. 

Ar'ab-s, 154. 

Ar'al Sea, 138. 

Ar au ca'ni an Indian.s, 108. 
Arehan'gel, 131. 

Ar ehi pel'ago, 14. 

Are'tic Circle, 10 ; ocean, 
16, 26 ; regions, 30. 
Arequi'pa (-ke-), (city), 
106. 

Ard'more, 61. 

Ar gen fi'na, 108. 

Ar i zo'na, 77. 

Ar'kan sa.s, 68; river, 31. 
Ar-me'ni a, 147. 

Ashe'ville, 55. 

A si a (a'shi a), 134. 

A si at'ic Ru.s.sia, 148. 

A si at'ic Turkey, 147. 

As to'ri a, 80. 

A sun cl on', 109. 

Asphalt, 97, 104. 

As.sam', 143, 146. 
Astraklian', 131. 

A ta ca'ma (desert), 107. 
Atch'i .Son, 73. 

Ath'ensj (Ga.), 56; 

(Greece), 133. 

Atlan'ta, 66. 

At lan'tic City, 47 ; cable, 
91; Ocean, 16, 28 ; plain, 
26, 30. 

At'las Mts., 150, 154. 
Atmosphere, 18. 

Attar of Roses, 132. 
Au'burn, Ala., 57 ; Me., 
41 ; N. Y., 46. 

Augus'ta (Me.), 41; 

(Ga.), 66. 

Au ro'ra, 67. 

A us'tin, 60. 

Aus'tra'li a, 161. 

Aus'tri a, 127. 

Axis (of the earth), 9. 

A zer bai jan', 149. 


A zorej', 121, 159. 

Az'tecs, 30. 

r 

Bab el Maji'deb (strait), 
151. 

Bad Lands, 73. 

Biig'dad, 147. 

B<a ha'm^, 97. 

Hah’i'a Blan'ca, 101. 

Ba A’l'a, 103. 

Bahrein' Island, 147. 
BaPkai (Lake), 138, .148. 
Baku, 149. 

Bai kan'Mts., 110 ; Penin- 
sida, 132; Countries, 
132. 

Baluchistan', 146. 

Bal'tic Sea, 110. 

Bai'ti more, 49. 

Bamboo, 83, 105, 140, 166. 
Banana, 81, 82, 93, 96, 97, 
105. 

Ban'ka, 164. 

Bangi kok', 143. 

Ban'gfir, 41. 

Banyan, 138. 

Bar ba'dOg, 97. 

Bar'ba ry States, 156. 
Bar'ca, 156. 

Bargelo'na, 121. 

Barley, 68, 70, 7i>, 115,130. 
Bar na ul', 149. 

Bar ran quil'la (-kel'ya), 
105. 

Bar're, 42. 

Ba'sel, 127 
Basil' to land, 160 
Ba ta'vi a, 162. 

Bat'on Rouge (-rozh), 58. 
Bath (Me.), 41. 

Battle Creek, 68. 

Beauxite (boks'it), 60. 

Ba va'ri a, 127. 

Bay City, 68. 

Bay guj, 68. 

Bayonne', 120. 

Bays, 16. 

Beaches, 14. 

Beans, 143, 155, 156. 
Beau'mont (bo-), 61. 

Bech u a'na land, 115, 160. 
Bed'gMiin.s, 147. 

Beef, dried, 103, 108. 

Be'i’ rii, 160. 

Bei'rut, 148. 

Bel'fast, 118. 

Bel'gi-an Con'go, 157. 
Bel'gi-um, 124. 

Bel grade', 132. 

Belle'ville, 67. 

Bell'ing ha.in, 80. 

Ben a' res, 146. 

Ben gaP Bay, 137. 
Benga'zl, 156. 

Ben gae'la, 159. 

Ben Ne'vis, 117. 

Berbe'ra, 160. 

Ber'bers, 154, 156. 

Ber'gen, 129. 

Be'ring Strait, 29. 
Berke'ley, 80. 

Berlin', 126 ; N. H., 42. . 
Ber mu'das, 97. 

Bern, 127. 

Betel-nut, 107. 

Beth'a ny, 147. 
Beth'lehem, 147. 

Biiq tan', 145. 


Bid'de ford, 41. 

Bilba'o, 121. 

Bil'lings, 77. 

Bil li t6n', 164. 

Bil'mah, 157. 

Bl lox'i, .57. 

Bing'iiam ton, 46. 

Bir'ming ham, U. S., 57 ; 
Eng., 117. 

Bis'cay, Bay of, 110. 
Bis'marck, 70. 

Bis'muth, 107. 

Black Country, 117. 

Black Forest, 126. 

Black Hills, 61, 70. 

Black Islands, 164. 

Black Lands, 130. 

Black Sea, 120. 

Blanc, Mont (moN bliiN'), 
127. 

Blgem'fon teln, 160. 
Bloom'ing ton, 67. 

Blue Ridge, ;T0. 

Blu'men au (-6w), 103. 

Boa constrictor, 83. 

Bo gO ta' 105. 

Boi'se City, 78. 

BokAa'ra, 149. 

Bo he'mi a, 128. 

Bo Ian' Pass, 146. 

Bo liv'i a, 106 ; Plateau of, 
98. 

Bo'ma, 157. 

Bom bag', 145. 

Borax, 122. 

Bor deaux' (-d6), 120. 
Bore, 100, 138. 

Bor'ne o, 164. 

Bos'po rus, 133. 

Bos'ton, 42. 

Boul'der, 76. 

BOze'man, 76. 

Brad'ford, 115. 

Brah'man ism, 23, 139. 
Bra/i ma pu'tra, 136. 
Brai'la, 132. 

Brazil, 102; highland of, 
98; nuts, 103. 

Breadfruit, 164. 

Breakei-s, 16. 

Breeze (land and sea), 
18. 

Brem'en, 127. 

Bres'lau (-lou), 127. 

Brest, 120. 

Bridge'port, 44. 

Bris'bane, 163. 

Bris'tol, 118. 

British Co lum'bi a. 91. 
British Hon du'ras, 96. 
British Museum, 117. 
Brit'tany, 119. 

Brock'ton, 42. 

Brook'ings, 70. 

Brus'selj, 124. 

Brunj'wick, 56. 

Bu ca ra man'ga, 105. 
Bue/iarest', 124. 
Bu'dapest, 128. 
Bud'ditism, 23, 139. 
Buenos Aires (bu e nos 
a'riz), 108. 

Buf'fa lo, 46, 50. 

Bui ga'ri a, 132. 
Bur'gundy, 119. 

Bur'ling ton (Vt.), 42; 

(Iowa), 72. 

I Bur'ma, 143, 145. 


Bu shire', 146. 

Bushmen, 154. 

BuMe, 73 ; city, 76. 

Butter, 45, 68, 70, 72, 73, 
119, 123, 127, 163. 

Cabinet, English, 117. 

Cabral', 103. 

Cacao (kaka'o), 93, 96, 
104, 105, 108, 145. 

Cactus, 60, 77. 

Cai'ro (in Egypt kl ro; 
in U. S. ka'ro), 155. 

Cal cut'ta, 145. 

Cal e do'ni an Canal, 118. 

Cal'gary, 91. 

Cal i fOr'ni a, 79. 

Cal la'5, 106. 

Calms, belts of, 18. 

Cam bo'di a, 137. 

Cam'bridge, 42; Univer¬ 
sity, 118. 

Cam'den, 46. 

Camels, 140, 146, 147, 148, 
149. 157. 

Cam-er-oon', 150, 159. 

Camphor, 142, 143 

Can'a da, 88-92. 

Canals in Venice, 122 ; in 
Germany, 126; in Hol¬ 
land, 12.3 ; in France, 
119; in China, 140; in 
India, 144. 

Ca na'ry Lslands, 159. 

Candle nut, 82. 

Canton' (in China), 141; 
in U. S. (can'ton), 65. 

Can'yon (kan'yun), 77. 

Cape Bret'on, 90. 

Cape of Good Hope, 159. 

Cape Del a gO'a, 160. 

Cape May, 47. 

Capes, 14. 

Cape Town, 159. 

Cape Verde Islands, 121, 
159. 

Ca ra'cas, 104. 

Caravans, 146. 

Car'de na.s, 97. 

Car'diff, 118. 

Car ib be'an Sea, 102. 

Car'men, 95. 

Car pa'thi an Mts., 110, 
128. 

Carpets, 124, 146, 149. 

Carra'ra, 122. 

Car'son City, 77. 

Car ta ge'na (in S. A.), 105. 

Cascade' Range, 26, 31. 

Cas'par, 76. 

Cas'pi an Sea, 149. 

Casiquia're (-ke-), 100. 

Cathedrals, 122. 

Catskill Mts., 44. 

Cattle, Argentina, 108; 
Barbary States, 156; 
Brazil, 103; Canada, 88; 
Colombia (S. A.), 105; 
Denmark, 124; Great 
Britain, 115; Iceland, 
92; Mexico, 95; Mo¬ 
rocco, 156; New Ze; 
land, 163 ;■ Paraguaj 
109 ; Russia, 130 ; Sibe¬ 
ria, 148 ; Sweden, 129 ; 
Switzerland, 127 ; Tibet, 
141 ; Uruguay, 109; 
Venezuela, 104; United 


States : Arizona, 77; 
Idaho, 78 ; Indian 'I’er- 
ritory, 61 ; Iowa, 72. 
Kansas, 73; Kentucky, 
64 ; Missouri, 72 ; Ne¬ 
braska, 73; New Mexico; 
74 ; Oregon, 80 ; South 
Dakota, 70 ; Texas, 60. 

Cau'easus Mts., 110 

Caucasians (N. A.), 30; 
(Europe), 114 ; (A.sia), 
139. 

Cag enne' (or ki en'), 104- 

Qe bu' Island, 83 ; city, 83. 

Cedar Rapids, 72. 

Qel'e bes, 164. 

Central Africa Protector¬ 
ate, 160. 

Central America, 96. 

Central Falls, 42. 

Central States, 61. 

Qeglon , 115, 145. 

Chad (Lake), 152. 

Qham plain' Canal, 46. 

C3iam plain. Lake, 42. 

Chang-sha', 141. 

Channel Islands, 118. 

Charcoal, Ala., 57 ; Miss., 
57. 

Charles'ton, W. Va., 50; 
S. C. 56. 

Char'lotte, 55. 

Char'lotte ville, 50. 

Qhar'lotle town, 91. 

Chat/tam, 118. 

Chat ta hoo'chee River, 56. 

Chat ta noo'ga, 55. 

Chaw ta'qua Lake, 43. 

Cheese, 68, 70, 72, 73, 88, 

■ 90, 123, 127, 163. 

Chem'nitz, 127. 

Qher'bourg, 120. 

Ches'a peake Bay, 49; 
states, 38. 

Ches'ter, 47. 

(They enne', 76. 

Qhi ca'go, 65, 66. 

Chicago'and Illinois Canal, 

66 . 

Qhl hua'hua (-wa'wa), 93. 

Chi'le, 107. 

Chim bo ra'zo Mt., 105. 

Chimpanzee, 154. 

China, 140. 

Chris ti a'ni a, 129. 

Christianity, 23, 139. 

Cigars, 83, 97. 

Qi en fue'gos (se en fwa' 
gos), 97. 

CinchSna, 105, 106, 107, 
145, 164. 

()in 9 in na'tl, 64. 

(Timiamon, 143, 145. 

Circles, great, 10; small, 
10 ; polar, 10; Arctic, 
10 ; Antarctic, 10 ; Me¬ 
ridian, 10; Circumfer¬ 
ence (of the earth), 8. 

Cl'u dad Bo I'i'var, 104. 

(Civilization, 23. 

Clarks'ville, 55. 

Clg'burne, 61. 

Cleve'land, 64. 

Climate, 19. 

, Clin'ton, 72. 

Cloves, 160. 

Coal — Effect on Indus¬ 
tries, 23 ; in Alaska, 81; 


172 












INDEX—PRONUNCIATIONS. 


173 


Austria, 128 ; Hungary, 
128; Belgium, 124; 
British Columbia, 91 ; 
Chile, 107 ; China, 140 ; 
Ecuador, 105 ; France, 
119; Germany, 126; 
Great Britain, 115; 
Italy, 122 ; India, 144 ; 
Japan, 140; New Zea¬ 
land, 163; Nova Scotia, 
90 ; Ontario, 90 ; Philip¬ 
pine Islands, 83; Poland, 
131; Russia, 130 ; Spain, 
121 ; United States: Ala¬ 
bama, 57 ; Arkansas, 60 ; 
Colorado, 76; Georgia, 
565; Illinois, 65; Indi¬ 
ana, 65; Iowa, 72; Kan¬ 
sas, 73; Kentucky, 64; 
Maryland, 49; Michi¬ 
gan, 68 ; Missouri, 72; 
New Mexico, 74; North 
Carolina, 55; Ohio, 64; 
Oregon, 80; Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 47; Tennessee, 
55; Texas, 60; Virginia, 
50; Washington, 80; 
West Virginia, 50; Wy¬ 
oming, 76. 

Coast line, 14. 

Coastal Plain, 14, 30. 
Co'ca, 106, 107. 

Co eha, bam'ba, 107. 
CO'chin China, 137. 

Cocoa, 103, 160. 

Cocoanut Palms, 81, 83. 
Cocoanuts, 57,81,105, 145, 
163, 164. 

CO'dy, 76. 

Coffee—in Africa, 155,157, 
158, 159, 160; Arabia, 
147 ; Brazil, 103 ; Cen¬ 
tral America, 96; Cey¬ 
lon, 145 ; Colombia, 105 ; 
Ecuador, 105; Guiana, 
104 ; Hawaii, 82 ; India, 
144 ; Java, 164; La Plata 
States, 108; Mauritius, 
169 ; Mexico, 93 ; Peru, 
106; Philippines, 83; 
Porto Rico, 81; Reunion 
Is., 160; Venezuela, 101; 
West Indies, 97. 
Cologne', 127. 

Colom'bia, 105. 

Co lom'bO, 145. 

Co Ifin', 96. 

Colonies, the Thirteen, 34 ; 
British, 158; French, 
158 ; Dutch, 123. 

Col o ra'do, 76. 

Colorado, Great Canon of, 
77 ; plateau, 31; river, 
28. 

Colorado Springs, 76. 

Co lum'bi a, plain of, 31 ; 
river, 28 ; city in S. C., 
56. 

Columbus, 28, 97, 122. 
Columbus, city, Ga., 66 ; 

Mi.ss., 67 ; Ohio, 66 . 
Comets, 6 . 

Commerce, 23 ; in Africa, 
155,157 ; Asia, 140,144 ; 
Australia, 161 ; Canada, 
88 ; Europe, 117, 123, 
130 ; United States, 38 ; 
Central States, 63 ; Mid¬ 
dle States, 45 ; New Eng¬ 
land States, 41; Southern 
States, 64. 

Compass, Points of, 11. 
Con'cord (-kerd), 41. 
Condor, 106. 

Confucianism, 141. 

Con'go River, 152. 

Con nect'i cut, 44; river, 
40. 

Con'stance. Lake, 127. 
Con Stan tine', 156. 

Con Stan ti no'ple, 133. 
Constellations, 5. 


Continents, 14. 

Copal, 158. 

Co pen ha'gen, 131. 

Copper — in Africa, 169 ; 
Australia, 161 ; Bolivia, 
107; Central America, 
96; Chile, 107 ; China, 
140 ; Cuba, 97 ; Ecuador, 
105 ; Germany, 126 ; 
Indo-China, 143; Japan, 
142 ; Mexico, 93 ; New 
Caledonia, 164; New¬ 
foundland, 91; New Zea¬ 
land, 163; Ontario, 90; 
Peru, 106; Philippine 
Islands, 83 ; Russia, 130; 
Siberia, 148 ; Spain, 121 ; 
Venezuela, 104; United 
States: Arizona, 78; 
Colorado, 76 ; Idaho, 78 ; 
Michigan, 68 ; Montana, 
76; New Mexico, 74 ; 
Tennes.see, 56; Utah, 78; 
Wyoming, 76. 

Copra, 164. 

Copts, 155. 

Coral, 122 ; islands, 163 ; 

polyp, 163; reef, 164. 
Cordilleras, 98. 

Cor'do ba, 108. 

C 6 r'intli, 123 ; Isthmus of, 
133. 

Cork (city), 118, (bark) 
121 , 166. 

Corn — in Africa, 157; 
Italy, 122; La Plata 
States, 108 ; Mexico, 93 : 
United States: Arkansas, 
60 ; Georgia, 56 ; Illinois, 
65 ; Indiana, 65 ; Iowa, 
72 ; Kansas, 73; Ken¬ 
tucky, 64; Michigan, 
68 ; Missouri, 72 ; Ne¬ 
braska, 73; New Mexico, 
74; New York, 45, South 
Carolina, -56 ; South Da^ 
kota, 70 ; Tennessee, 55 ; 
Texas, 60 ; Virginia, 50 ; 
Wisconsin, 68 . 

Cor'si ca, 120. 

Cor'si ca'na, 61. 

Co .se gui'na, 96. 

Cos'ta Ri'ca, 96. 

Co to pax'i Mt., 105. 
Cotton, in Africa, 165, 157, 
158 ; Asia, 140, 143, 144, 
146, 147, 149; Bahama 
Lslands, 97 ; Brazil, 103 ; 
Mexico, 93 ; Peru, 106 ; 
Turkey, 132 ; United 
States : Alabama, 67 ; 
Arkansas, 60 ; Florida, 
56 ; Georgia, 56 ; Lou¬ 
isiana, 68 ; Mississippi, 
67 ; North Carolina, 55; 
Oklahoma, 61 ; South 
Carolina, 66 ; Tennessee, 
65; Texas, 60. 

Cotton gin, 54. 

Cotton goods, 41, 42, 55, 
56, 57, 119, 126, 133,142, 
163. 

Cotton-seed oil, 54, 57, 58. 
Council Bluffs, 72. 
Cov'ington, 64. 

Cow tree, 104. 

Crater, 15. 

Creoles 58. 

Crevasse, 68 . 

Crip'ple Creek, 76. ' 
Crocodiles, 143, 154. 

Cu'ba, 79. 

Cu'cu ta, 106. 

Ciim'ber land River, 55 ; 
city, 49. 

Cum'bre Pass, 98. 

Cu ra 90 a'. 96. 

Currants, 133. 

Currents, ocean, 17. 

Cu ya ba' (kwe-), 103, 108. 
Cuz'co (kus-), 106. 
Cypress, 5i. 


Cy'prus, 115. 

Czech 6 slo vak'i a, 128. 

Dac'ca, 144. 

Da ho'niey, 158. 

Dairying — Brazil, 103 ; 
Denmark, 123; France, 
119; Netherlands, 123; 
Norway, 129; Sweden, 
129 ; Switzerland, 127 ; 
United States, 42, 50, 68, 
70, 73. 

Dal'las, 60. 

Da mas'cus, 148. 

Dan'bury, 44. 

Danish America, 92. 
Dan'ube River, 112, 128, 

I. 32. 

Dan'Viile, 50. 

Dan'zig (dantsik), 131. 
Dares Salaam', 152. 
Dar'fur, 153. 

Darling River, 161. 

Dates, 147, 155, 156. 

Date palm.s, 147, 156. 
Dav'enport, 72. 

Daw'.son, 91. 

Day, 9. 

Day'ton, 6.5. 

Dead Sea, 138. 

De ca'tur, 66. 

Degrees (of latitude and 
longitude), 10; length 
of, 11. 

Dek'kan, 144. 

Del a go a Bay, 160. 

Del'a ware, 47 ; river, 44. 
Delft. 123. 

Del'/d, 145. 

Delta (Nile), 154. 

Den'i son, 61. 

Den'mark. 124; colonial 
possessions of, 124. 
Den'vei', 76. 

De.s Moines, 72. 

Deserts, 15. 

De troit', 68. 

Di a man ti'na. 100. 
Diameter (of the earth), 8. 
Diamonds, 102, 130, 159, 
160. 

Din ii'ric Alps, 132. 
Direction, 8, 11. 

Di.strict of Columbia, 49. 
Divides, 20. 

Dnie'per River, 130. 

Dom i ni'ea (island), 94. 
Dominion of Canada, 88. 
Don River, 130. 

Don etz' River, 131. 
Dordogne' River, 119. 
Dou'ro River, 113. 

Do'ver, N. H., 42 ; Del., 
49 ; England, 116 ; Strait 
of, 116. 

Drej'den, 127. 

Dromedary, 139. 

Droughts, 100. 

Drugs, 103, 146. 

Dub'lin, 118. 

Du buque' (-buk'), 72. 

D ■' luth', 69. 

Dundee', 118. 

Du ran' go, 96. 

Dur'ban, 160. 

Dune'din, 163. 

Dur'/iam, 55. 

Dutch Colonies, 123 ; Ea.st 
Indies, 164. 

Dwi'na River, 1.30. 

Dye woods, 83, 96, 103, 
106. 

Eaglewood, 143. 

Earth, size, shape, motions, 

8 ; .surface, 7, 8; orbit, 
of, 9 ; plane of the orbit, 

9 ; inclination of its axis, 

II. 

Earthquakes, 106, 142. 
Ea.stern Turkestan', 141. 
East India Company, 144. 


Ea.st Indian Ar chi pel'a go, 
164. I 

East Indies, 28. ( 

East London, 1.59. , 

East St. Louis, 66 . ! 

Eau Claire (6 klar'), 69. 1 
Ebony, 82, 165, 158, 160. 1 
Ec'ua dor, 105. 

E dam', 123. 

Eddie.s, 17. 

Ed'in burgh (-burro), 118. 
Ed'nion ton, 91. 

Education — Argentina, 
108 ; Chile, 107 ; China, 
141 ; France, 119 ; Ger¬ 
many, 126 ; Great Bri¬ 
tain, 117; Japan, 142; 
Norway, 129; Russia, 
130; Sweden, 129; 
_ Switzerland, 127. 

E'gypt. 1-54. 

E gyp'tian (shan) Su dan', 
_ 155. 

EAren brelt'steln, 127. 
Eider down, 92. 

Elbe River, 126. 

El burz', 1.36. 

Elephant, 14.3, 154. 
Elevation, effects of, 19. 
El'gin, 67. 

E liz'a beth, 47. 

Elk'hart, 6.5. 

El mi'ra, 46. 

El Pa'so, 61. 

El Re'no, 61. 

El'wood, 65. 

Emeralds, 105, 148. 
Empire, 23. 

Emu, 161. 

En'gland (in'-), 115. 

E'nid, 61. 

Equator, 10. 

Equinoxe.s, 12. 

E'rie, 47. 

E rie Canal, 38, 46. 

E ri tre'a, 160. 

Es'ki mo, 81, 92. 

Esparto Grass, 121, 160. 
Esqui'malt, 91. 

Es'sen, 126. 

Es fho'ni a, 130. 

Estuaries, 14. 

Et'na Mt., 122. 

Eu phra'tej River, 138. 

Eu ra'si a (-shi-), 110. 

Eu re'ka Springs, 60. 
Eu'rope, 110. 

Ev'anj ton, 67. 

Ev'anj ville, 65. 

Everglades, 66 . 

Ev'er est Mt., 136. 
Ev'erett, 80. 

Fains, 126, 128, 130, 160. 
Falk'land Is., 109. 

Fall line, 44. 

Fall River, 42. 

Far'go, 70. 

Fa'roe Is., 124. 

Fauna, 21. 

Fernandi'na, 53. 
Fertilizers, 56. 

Fez, 156. 

Fezzan', 156. 

Figs, 64,119, 122, 146,147. 
Fi'ji Is., 163. 

Fin'gal’s Cave, 117. 
Fin'land, 129. 

Fiord, 14. 

Fire Arms, 120, 124. 

Fire Worshippers, 23. 
Fishing — Africa, Uio ; 
Canada, 88 , 90 ; China, 
140; Denmark, 124; 
France, 119 ; Italy, 122 ; 
Labrador, 92; Nether¬ 
lands, 123 ; Newfound¬ 
land, 91 ; Norway, 129 ; 
South America. 109; 
United State.s, 38, 41, 49, 
.55, 63, 80. 

Fi u'me, 122, 132. 


Flax, 54, 69, 70, 73, 90, 
108, 118, 121, 130, 155, 
156, 163. 

.Flint, 68. 

Flora, 21. 

Flor'ence, 122 ; Ala., 56. 
Flo ri a n6‘po lis, 103. 

Flor'i da, 66. 

FloV, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 
79, 90 ; in Hungary, 128. 
Fond du Lac, 69. 

Force, centrifugal, 8. 
Forests, 88, 91, 106, 126, 
129, 160, 163. 

FormO'sa, 143. 

Fort Ben'ton, 76. 

Fort Dodge, 73. 

Fort Hill, 56. 

Fort Scott, 73. 

Fort Smith, 60. 

Fort Wayne, 65. 

Fort Worth, 61. 

Fo.ssil ivory, 148. 

France, 119. 

Frank'fort, Ky., 64 ; Ger¬ 
many, 127. 

Fred'er ick, 49. 

Fred'er ic ton, 90. 
Free'town, 158. 

French Equatorial Africa, 
120, 158. 

French Guinea, 158. 
♦French Indo-China, 120, 
143. 

French West Africa, 158. 
'Fres'no, 80. 

Fruit (see kinds). 

Fu chan' (-chou), 141. 
Fujiya'ma, 142. 

Furs, 130, 148. 

Ga la'pa gos Is., 106. 
Gii'latz, 132. 

Galg'na, 73. 

Galic'ia (-lish'-), 126. 
Gal'veston (Tex.), 60. 
Gal'way, 116. 

Gam'bi a, 115, 168. 
Gamboge, 143. 

Gan'ges River, 1.36. 

Ga ronne River, 119. 

Gas, natural, 65, 70, 73. 
Gaucho.s, 108. 

Gen e .see' River, 46. 

Ge ne'va. Lake and City, 

. 127. 

Gen'o a, 122. 

Geography, divisions and 
definitions, 5, 6, 7. 
GeOrge'town, 104. 
Geor'gia, 56; fin Asia), 
149. * 

Germany, 126. 

Geysers, 92. 

G/tats Mts., 135. 

G/tent, 124. 

fti bi-al'tar, 116, 121. 

Ginger, 97. 

Giraffe, 154. 

Gironde River, 126., 
Glaciers, 92, 110. 

Glas'goio, 118. 

Glass, 47, 128. 

Globe, 13. 

Glouces'ter (glos'ter), 
Mass., 42. 

Goats, 96, 146, 169. 

Go'bi, De.sert, 141. 

Gold — Abyssinia, 155 ; 
Africa, 155, 160; Alaska, 
81 ; Australia, 161 ; 
Brazil, 102 ; Canada, 90, 
91; Cape of Good Hope. 
1.59 ; Central America, 
96 ; China, 140; Colom¬ 
bia, 105 ; Guianas, 104 ; 
India, 144; Indo-China, 
143; .Japan, 140; Mexico, 
93 ; New Zealand, 163 : 
Peru, 106; Philippine 
Is., 83 ; Russia, 130 ; 
Siberia, 148; United 


States, 55, 56, 70, 74, 76, 
77, 78, 79, 80, 81 ; Vene¬ 
zuela, 104. 

Gold Coast, 11.5, 1.58. 

Gold-(lu.st, 166, 167, 160. 

Golden, 76. 

Golden Horn, 124. 

Gorilla, 154. 

Go'te borg (yu te bor y’), 
129. 

Government (kindsof), 23. 

Graf'ton, 70. 

Grain (see wheat, etc.). 

Grain elevator, 66. 

Gram'pi an Mts., 116. 

Gra na'da, 121. 

Grand Banks, 61. 

Grand Canal, 140. 

Grand Forks, 70. 

Grand Rap'ids, 68. 

Granite (N. H.), 41; (Vt.), 
42 ; (Tex.), 60 ; Canada, 
90. 

Grapes, 45, 54, 60, 64, 74, 
79, 121, 122, 126, 146, 
147, 159, 163. 

Gravitation, 8. 

Grazing; in Africa, 160, 
Australia, 161 ; Canada, 
88 ; Great Britain, 115; 
Mexico, 95; Newfound¬ 
land, 91 ; Rmssia, 130 ; 
South America, 103, 
108 ; Switzerland, 127 ; 
United States, 38, 41, 00, 
61, 64, 76. 79. 

Great Basin, 31, 77. 

Great Brit'uin, 115. 

Great Central Plains, 26, 
98. 

Great Falls, 76 ; city, 76. 

Great Geyser, 92. 

Great Ka na'wAa River, 45. 

Great Lakes, 38, 69. 

Great Plains, 31. 

Great Salt Lake, 78. 

Great Wall, 140. 

Greater An til'le?, 96. 

Greece, 133. 

Greek Catholic Church, 
132. 

Green Bay, 69. 

Green'land, 92, 124. 

Green Mts., 30. 

Green River, 76. 

Greens'bor o (-buro), 66. 

Green'vilie, S. C., 66; 

Miss., 57. 

Green'wich (grin.'ij, in 
England-; in United 
States, gren'wich), 117. 

Green'wood, 67. 

Gua da la ja ra (gua-tha-la- 
ha'ra), 96. 

Gita dal quiv'ir River, 113. 

Guadeloupe' Is., 96, 120. 

Guiidi a'na River, 113. 

Guam, 83. 

Gua na jua'to (-hwa'-), 93; 
city, 95. 

Guano, 106. 

Gua te ma'la, 96. 

Guavas (gua'vaz), 57. 

Guayaquil' (-kel'), 106. 

Guay'mas, 96. 

Guern'sey, 118. 

Gui a'na (British, Dutch 
and French), 104. 

Guiana Highland, 98. 

Guin'ea, 158 ; Gulf of, 168. 

Gulf'port, 57. 

Gulfs, 16. 

Gulf Stream, 17. 

Gums, 83, 142. 147, 155, 
166, 167, 160. 

Guth'rie, 61. 

Gutta percha, 143, 164. 

Gypsum, 60, 61, 68, 70, 73, 
90. 

Haar'lem, 123. 

Ha'gerj town, 49. 


















174 


INDEX—PRONUNCIATIONS 


Hague, 123. 

Haidar a bad', 137. 

Hai nan' Is., 137. 

Hai' ti, 97. 

Ha ko da'te, 143. 

Ha'la Mts., 146. 

Hal'i fas, 90. 

Ham'burg, 127. 

Ham'ilton, 65. 

Ham'mer f est, 112. 
Ham'mond, 66 . 

Han kau' (-kou), 141. 
Han'nibal, 72. 

Hanoi', 143. 

Han'o ver, N.H., 42. 
Harbors, 17. 

Hard'wick, 42. 

Har'risburg, 47. 

Hartford, Conn., 44. 
Hat'teras, Cape, 14. 
Havan'a, 97. 

Ha've'r /till, 42. 

Havre, 120. 

Ha wai i, 82. 

Hay, 41, 45, 68 , 72, 90, 
116. 

Headland, 14. 

Heart’s Content, 91. 

Heb'ri dej Is., 116. 

Height of Land, 26. 

Hek'la Mt., 92. 

Hedj az', 147. 

Hel'e na. Ark., 60 ; Mont., 
76 (St. Hele'na, island, 
169). 

Hel'sing foi-s, 129. 
Hemispheres, Eastern and 
Western, 24 ; Northern 
and Southern, 25. 

Hemp, 64, 64, 90, 108, 130. 
Hen'derson, 64. 

Her at', 146. 

Her cu la'ne um, 122. 

Hides — Algeria, 166; An¬ 
dean States, 105; Aus¬ 
tralia, 161 ; Brazil, 103 ; 
Central America, 96; 
India, 144; La Plata 
States, 108; Mexico, 96; 
South Africa, 169 ; 
Tunis, 156; Venezuela, 
104. 

Highland, 16. 

High Point, 55. 

Hills, 14. 

Hi'lo, 83. 

Hi ma'la yas, 136. 

Hindus, 144. 
Hippopotamus, 154. 

Ho ang' (hwang) River, 
136. 

HS'bart, 163. 

Ho'bo ken, 46. 

Hogs, 72, 73, 124. 
IlSl'yoke, 42. 

Hol'land (see Nether¬ 
lands). 

Hon'do, 142. 

Hon du'ras, 96. 

Hong' Kong', 115. 

Ho no lu'lu, 83. 

Honey, 81. 

Hook, 16. 

Hops, 45, 79, 80, 115. 
Horns, 108. 

Horses, 64, 73, 96, 116, 
124, 130, 146, 147, 148. 
Hot Springs, 60. 
Hottentots, 154. 

Hours, 9. 

Hous'ton, Tex., 61. 

How sa ton ic River, 39. 
Huai la'ga (wal ya'ga) 
River, 102. 

Hud'son River, 44; bay, 

88 . 

Hull, 118. 

Hum'boldt, 52. 

Hun'gary, 128. 
Hunts'viRe, 67. 

Huron, 70. 

Huss, John, 128. 


Icebergs, 92. 

Ice'land, 92. 

I'daho, 78. 

II'li nois, 65. 

I loi'lo, 83. 

In'di a, British, 115, 144. 

In di an' a, 65. 

In di an ap'o lis, 65. ^ 

Indian Mutiny, 145. 

Indian Ocean, 16, 25. 
Indians, 30, 61. 

India rubber, 103, 105. 
In'dies, East, 28; West, 
96. 

Indigo, 96, 108. 143, 144, 
156. 

In'do-Chi'na, 143; French, 
143. 

In'dus River, 136. 
Industries, 123. 

In'ter lak 6n, 127. 
Inventions, 54. 

In ver ness', 118. 

I'o wa, 72. 

I qui'que (e ke'ka), 107. 
Ir'aq, 115, 147. 

I ran', plateau of, 136. 

Ir a wa'di River, 1.36. 
Ire'land, 118. 

Irish Free State, 115, 118. 
Irkutsk', 149. 

I roll: Abyssinia, 155 ; Al¬ 
geria, 156; Asia, 140, 
142, 144 ; Brazil, 102 ; 
Canada, 90 ; Cuba, 97 ; 
Ecuador, 105; Europe, 
116, 119, 120, 121, 126, 
128, 131, 132 ; New Zea^ 
land, 163 ; Peru, 106 ; 
Philippines, 83 ; Tunis, 
166 ; United States, 45, 
46, 47, 50, 55, 56, 57, 60, 
64, 68, 69, 76, 80. ' 
Irrigation, 77, 79, 14(>. 
Islands : Continental, 14 ; 
oceanic, 14; volcanic, 
14, coral, 14. 

Isotherms, 20. 

Lsh'pe ming, 68. 

Ispahan', 146. 

Isthmus, 14. 

Is'tri a, 122. 

Italian Africa, 160. 

It'aly, 121. 

1 tas'ca Lake, 69. 

Ivory, 155, 156, 167, 158, 
159, 160 ; vegetable, 105. 
Ivory Coast, 158. 

Jack'son, Mich., 98 ; Miss., 
67 ; Tenn., 55. 

Jack'son viUe, Fla., 57 ; 
■ Ill., 67. 

Jala'pa (har-), 94. 
Jamai'ca, 97. 

James River, 44. 

.James'town, 70. 

Japan Current, 79. 

Japan, 142. 

Jas'sy (yas'.si), 132. 

Ja'va, 164. 

Jef'fer son City, 72. 
Jer'sey, 118. 

Jer'sey City, 46. 
Jeru'salem, 147. 

.Jewelry, 119, 127. 

Jo han'nes burg, 160. 
Johns'ton, 47. 

J6'li et, 66. 

.Jop'lin, 72. 

Jor'dan River, 147. 

Jo rul'lo (ho rul'yo), 94. 
Ju an' de Fu'ca (hp an') 
(Strait), 36. 

Ju an Fer nan'dez (hv!- 
an'-), Is. of, 107. 
Judaism, 23, 139. 

.Jum'na, 146. 

Juneau' (-no'), 81. 
Jung'frau (yung'frou) Mt., 
127. 

Ju ni at' a River, 43. 


Ju'ra Mts., 125. 

Jute, 58, 144. 

Jut'land, 131. 

Kabul', 146. 

Kaffirs, 164, 

Ka la hii'ri. Desert of, 150. 
Kal a ma zoo', 68 . 

Kal muks', 149. 

Ka'ma, 130. 

KSm-chat'ka, 135, 137. 
Kandahar', 146. 

Kangaroo, 161. 

Ka'no, 157. 

Kan'jas, 73. 

Kansas City, Mo., 72; 

Kansas, 73. 

Kashgar', 141. 

Kashmir' (-mer'), 145. 
Kauri gum, 163. 

Keene, 42. 

Ken'ya, 160, 160. 

Ken ne bee' River, 40. 

Ke no'sha, 69. 

Ken tuck'y, 64. 

Ke'o kuk, 73. 

Keys, 57. 

Key West, 67. 

K/iaT'bar Pass, 146. 
KAartum', 156. 

K/ielat', 146. 

Ivhi va, 149. 

K'i akA'ta, 149. 

Ki'ef, 131. 

Ki lau e'a (-lou-), 82. 

Kil l man ja'ro Mt., 150. 
Killar'ney, Lakes of, 118. 
Kim'ber ley, 169. 

Kingdom, 2^ 

King'stou, 97. 
King'-te-ching', 141. 

Ki o'len Mts., 129. 

Kirghiz' (-gez'), 134, 148. 
Kit'ter y, 42. 

Kiu'.shu, 142. 

Klon'dike, Region, 91. 
Knox'viUe, 55. 

Ko'ko mo, 65. 

Ko re'a, 143. 

Krem'lin, 131. 

Kron'staat, 131. 

Kuen-lun' Mountains, 134 
Ku'rll Islands, 135, 137. 
Kyo'to, 143. 

Labor, 114. 

Lab ra d 6 r', 91. 

Lace, 124. 

La Crosse, 69. 

La ta,y ette', 66 . 

La drone?', 162. 

Lagoons, 16. 

La'gos, 158. 

La Guay'ra, 104. 

Lake Charles, 68 . 

I^akes, 17. 

Lake States, 38. 
Lan'easter, 47. 

Land, forms of, 14 ; eleva¬ 
tion of, 14 ; divisions of, 
13. 

Land of Dates, 154, 166. 
Lan'sing, 68 . 

La Paz', 107. 

Lap'land, 129. 

La Pla'ta, river, 100 ; city, 
108; states, 108. 
Lar'amie, 76. 

La re'do, 61. 

Las'.sa, 141. 

Las Ve gas, 74. 

Latitude, 10 ; use of, 10 ; 
parallels of, 10 ; effect 
of, 19. 

Lat'via, 131. 

Lau'rel, 57. 

Lau ren'ti an (-shi an) 
Highland, 26, 129. 

Lau ri cO'eha Lake, 100. 
Lava, 16. 

Law'rence, Mass., 42; 
Kansas, 73. 


Lead ; Brazil, 102 ; China, 
140; Germany, 126; 
Indo-China, 143 ; Mex¬ 
ico, 93 ; Peru, 106 ; 
Spain, 121; United 
States, 60, 65, 68 , 72, 73, 
74, 76, 78. 

Lead City, 70. 

Lead'ville, 76. 

Leav'en worth, 73. 

Leeds, 117. 

Leather, 68 , 124, 132. 
Leip'sic, 127. 

Lemons, 79, 93, 122, 156. 
Le murs, 83. 

Le'na River, 138. 

Le'on, 95. 

Leopard, 143, 154. 

Le'o pold ville, 167. 
Leprosy, 83. 

Lesser An til'le?, 96. 

Le vant', 133. 

Levees, 58. 

Lew'is ton. Me., 41; Idaho, 
78. 

Lex'ing ton, 64. 

Ley'den, 123. 

Li be'ri a, 168. 

Lib'y an Desert, 150. 

Lick Observatory, 80. 
Licorice, 133. 

Li ege' (-azh'), 124. 
Lignite, 70. 

Lilies, 97. 

Lille, 120. 

Li'ma, 106. 

Lime, Canada, 90; Ala., 
57. 

Lim'erick, 118. 

Limestone, 66 , 60, 65. 

Li moges' (-mozh), 120. 
Lim po'po River, 153. 
Lin'coln, Neb., 73. 

Linen : Austria, 128 ; Hun¬ 
gary, 128 ; Belgium, 124 ; 
France, 119; Germany, 
126; Great Britain, 
118. 

Lin.seed oil, 69. 

Lion, 164. 

Lip'ari Is., 113. 

Lij'bon, 121. 

Lith u a'ni a, 131. 

Lit'tle Rock, 60. 

Live-oak, 51, 57. 
Liv'erpool, 117. 
Livingstone, 160. 

Llama, 106. 

Llanos, 100. 

Lo an'da, 159. 

Lodz, 131. 

L5'gan (Utah), 78. 

Lo'gans port, 65. 

Loire River (Iwar), 119. 
Lom'bardy, 122. 

Long Branch, 47. 
Longitude, 11. 

Lon'don, 117. 

Loii'don der ry, 118. 
L 6 rraine', 120. 

Los An'gel es, 79. 

Lou i ji an'a, 58. 

Lou'is vilie (or low'i-), (>4. 
Louren^o Marques (lo ren'- 
so mar'kes), 160. 

Low'eU, 42. 

Loyalty Islands, 164. 
Lue'ea, 125. 

Lucerne', Lake and City, 
127. 

Luck'now (-ou), 145. 
Lmnber: Canada, 88 ; 

Norway, 129; Russia, 
130; South America, 
107 ; Tasmania, 163; 
United States, 38, 41,42, 
65, 66 , 67, 68 , 60, 64, 68 , 
69, 72, 78, 80. 

Lu'rai/ Caves, 50. 
Lux'emburg, 123. 

Lu zon', 83. 

Lynch'burg, 60. 


Lynn, 42. 

Lyon, 120. 

Lyre bird, 161. 

Macaroni, 122. 

Machinery, 72. 

Mac ken'zie River, 28. 
Ma'con, 56. 

Mad a gas'car, 120, 160. 
Madei'ra, 121, 159. 

Mad'i son, Wis., 69. 
Madras', 146. 

Madrid', 121. 

Magnolia, 61. 

Ma gel'lan. Strait of, 98. 
Maguey, 93. 

Mag'yars (mod'yorz), 128. 
Mahogany, 93, 96. 

Mai ma tchin', 140, 149. 
Maine, 41. 

Maize, 109, 141, 156. 
Malak'ka, 145. 

Mal'aga, 121. 

Ma lay' Peninsula, 143 ; 

Archipelago, 164. 

Malay Race, 139. 

Ma lay'si a, 164. 

Mal'ta, 116. 

Mammoth Cave, 64. 

Man, range of, 21; Isle of, 
118. 

Mana'gua, 96. 
Man'chester, 117 ; N. IL, 
41. 

Man chu'ri a, 140, 141. 
Man'daiay, 143. 

Man ga nese : Brazil, 102 ; 

Ga., 66 ; Va., 60. 

Ma nil'a, 83; hemp, 83. 
Manioc, 103, 108, 109. 

Man is tee', 68 . 

Man i to'ba, 91. 

Man'i tow, 76. 

Man i to woe', 69. 

Man ka'to, 70. 

Mii'nu a, 36, 164. 
Manufacturing — Africa, 
156 ; Asia, 140 ; Austria, 
128 ; Hungary, 128 ; Bel¬ 
gium, 124 ; British India, 
144 ; France, 119 ; Ger¬ 
many, 126; Great Brit¬ 
ain, 115; Italy, 122; 
Japan, 142; Netherlands, 
123 ; Pei'sia, 146 ; Philip¬ 
pine Islands, 83; Russia, 
130; South America, 
103 ; Switzerland, 127 ; 
United States, 35, 41, 45, 
64, 63. 

Man za nil'lo (man sa nel'- 
yo), 95. 

Maple sugar, 42, 90. 

Maps. 13. 

Marble, 42, 56, 56, 60, 122. 
Ma ra eal'bo, 104. 
Maranhao', 103. 

Ma ra lion' (-youn), 100. 
Marine Plain, 44. 

Mariner’s Compass, 11 . 
Mar i netfe', 69. 

Mar'i on, 65. 

Marl, 46. 

Marque'sas, 120. 

Mar seilie', 120. 

Mar'shaR town, 73. 
Marshes, salt, 16. 

Mar'ti nique' (-nek), S 6 , 
120 . 

Ma'ry land, 49. 

MSscat', 147. 

Ma sh5'na land, 160. 
Massachu'setts, 42. 

Mat a be'le land, 160. 
Matan'zas, 97. 

Mate' (ma'ta), 108, 109. 
Mat' ter horn, 127. 

Mau'na Lo'a, 82. 

Mau ri'ti us (-rish'i us), 
160. 

Mays'viUe, 64. 

Ma zat lau', 95. 


McClure, Capt., 92. 
McKees'port, 47. 

Meadows, 16. 

Meat Packing, 68 , 72, 73^ 
79. 

Me dell in' (-thal yen')^ 
106. 

Me di'na, 147. 
jV/eis'sen, 127. 

Mek ka, 147. 

Me kong River, 136. 

Mel a ne'si a (-shi-), 164. 
Mel'bourne, 163. 

Melons, 56. 

Mem'phis, 66 . 

Me nom'i nee,' 68 . 
Mercator’s Chart, 13. 

Mer ced' River, 79. 

Mer'eu ry (see quick¬ 
silver) . 

Mer de Glace (mer de 
gias), 110. 

Mer'i da, 95. 

Mer'i den, 44. 

Me rid'i an, city, 67; circle, 
10 ; prime, 11 . 

Mer'ri mac River, 40. 

Mesa (nia'sa), 73. 

Meshed', 146. 

Mes 0 po ta'mi a, 115, 147. 
Meteors, 6 . 

Meteorites, 6 . 

Mex'i CO, 93 ; city, 96 ; 

Gulf of, 26. 

Mica, 55, 70. 

Mieh'i gan, 68 ; City, 65. 
Mi cro ne'si a (-shi-), lf!4. 
Middle Atlantic States. 44. 
Midnight Sun, 129. 

Mi Ian', 122. 

Miles, scale, 13. 

Military Territ<jrie 8 , 168. 
Milk, condensed, 72. 73, 
127. 

Mil'ledge ville, 66 . 

Millet, Kansas, 73, 140, 
141, 144, 155. 

Mil wau'kee, 68 . 

Mineral Springs, 45, 60, 
76, 77, 128, 142. 

Mining (see each mineral). 
Min ne ap'o lis, 69. 

Min ne so'ta, 69. 

Minutes, 9. 

Mis sis sip'pi, 57 ; valley 
of, 31; river, 28. 
MLssissippi-Yazoo Delta, 
67. 

Missgw'la, 77. 

Missgw'ri, 72; river, 31. 
Mit'cheli, 70. 

Mo bile', 67. 

Mo'c/ta, 147. 

Mohammedans, 23, 144, 

147, 158. 

Mbl'dau River, 128. 
Mollen'do (-yen'-), 107. 
Moline, 67. 

Molue'eas, 164. 
Monadnocks, 40. 

Monarchy, 23 ; absolute, 
23 ; limited, 23. 
Mongo'lia, 140, 141. 
Monkeys, 143. 

Mo non ga he'la River, 45. 
Monsoons, 18, 83. 
Monta'na, 76. 

Mon< Ce n'is', 127. 

Most Cer vin' (s&r vAn'), 
127. 

Mon te ne'gro, 132. 

Mon te rey', 95. 

Mon te vid'e o, 109. 
Montgom'ery, 67. 

Month, 6 . 

Mont pe'li er, 42. 

Mont re al', 90. 

Moon, phases of, 6 ; new, 
6 ; full, 6 . 

Moors, IM. 

Moraine, 40. 

MOr a'vi a, 128. 














INDEX—PRONUNCIATIONS 


175 


More'lia, 95. 

Mo roc'co, 120, 156. 

Moros (mO'roz), 83. 
Mos'cQw, 131. 

Mos sa'me des, 159. 
Mountains — Offices of, 
14 ; Height of, 15 ; Ef¬ 
fect on Rainfall, 19. 
Mountain Passes, 15, 122, 
146 ; Ranges, 14 ; Sys¬ 
tems, 14. 

Mt. Hec'la, 92. 

Mt. Mar'cy, 44. 

Mt. Mit'cheH, 40. 

Mt. St. E li'as, 81. 

Mt. Ver'non, 50. 

Mt. Washington, 40. 

Mo zam bique' (-bek'), 160. 
Muddy Salt Mines, 77. 
Miik'den, 141. 

Miilberry tree, 122, 140, 
143, 147, 149. 

Mules, 72. 

Mul'house, 120. 

Mun'cie, 65. 

MQ'mcA, 127. 

Mur'ray River, 161. 

Mur shed a bad', 145. 
Murzuk', 156. 

Muscatine, 73. 
Muske'gon, 68 . 
Musko'gee, 61. 

Muslins, 144. 

Mus'sel Shoals, 55. 

Mutton, 108, 163. 

Myrrh, 160. 

Nagasa'ki, 143. 

Na nal'mo, 91. 

Nankin', 141. 

Nantes, 120. 

Naples, 122. 

Napoleon, 159. 

Naphtha, 146. 

Nar bonne', 126. 

Nash'u a, 41. 

Nash'ville, 66 . 

Nas'sua, 97. 

Natal', 159, 160. 

Natch'ez, 57. 

Natural Bridge, 60. 

Nau'ta, 103. 

Naval Academy, U. S., 49. 
Naval Stores, 61,55, 66 , 67. 
Ne bras'ka, 73. 

Ned'jed, 147. 

Negroes, 30, 157. 

Nel'.son River, 28. 

Ne mowrs, 126. 

Ne pai', 145. 

Neth'er lands, 123; Colo¬ 
nial Posse.ssions of, 123. 
Ne va'da, 77. 

Ne'va River, 131. 

New Albany, 65. 

New'ark, N. J. 46; Ohio, 
65. 

New Bed'ford, 42. 
New'bern, 66 . 

New Brit'ain, 44. 

New Bruns'wick, 47; Can¬ 
ada, 90. 

New'burgh, 46. 

New Cal e d 6 'ni a, 120,164. 
New Cas'tle, 49; Eng., 117. 
New England States, 40. 
New'found land, 91. 

New Guinea (gin'e), 162, 
164. 

New Hamp'shire, 41. 

New Ha'ven, 44. 

New I be'ri a, 68 . 

New Jer'sey, 46. 

New Lon'don, 44. 

New Mex'i co, 74. 

New Or'le ans, 68 . 
New'port, R. I., 42; Ky., 
64. 

New* port News, 50. 

New South Wales, 163. 
New York, 45. 

New York City, 46. 


New Zea'land, 163. 
N'ga'mi Lake, 153. 

Ni ag'a ra Falls, 45. 

Ni ca rii'gua, 96. 

Nickel, 164. 

Nic 0 bar, 144. 

Nic the roi', 103. 

Nl'ger River, 152. 

NT ge'ri a, 11.5, 158. 

Night, 9. 

Nile, valley of, 164; river, 

162. 

Nismes, 120. 

Nitrate, 107. 

Nizli'in Nov'gorod, 130. 
Nomads, 22, 134, 146, 147. 
Nome, 81. 

Nor'fofk, Va., 50. 

North Adams, 42. 

North America, 26; climate 
and vegetation, 28; in¬ 
habitants, 30. 

North Cape, 129. 

North Car 6 li'na, 55. 

North Da ko'ta, 70. 
Northern Ireland, 115,118 
Northern Pacific R. R., 80 
Northwest passage, 92. 
Nor'way, 129. 

Nor'wich, 44. 

Notre Dame', 120. 
Not'ting/(am, 117. 

No'va Seo ti a (-shi a), 90. 
Nu'bi a, 155. 

Nubian Desert, 150. 
Nu'rem berg, 127. 

Nuts, 121, 158. 

Nya'sa (ne-), 160. 

Oak'land, 79. 

Oasis, 15. 

Oats, North America, 56, 
60, 65, 68 , 69, 70, 72. 73; 
Europe, 115, 118, 130; 
Asia, 148. 

Oaxa'ca (wiiha'ka), 95. 
Ob River, 138. 
Occupation.s, 22. 
f)cean.s, 16. 

Ocean Currents, 17. 

O ce an'i a (o she an'i a), 

163. 

O'der River, 126, 128. 

O des'sa, 131. 

Og'den, 78. 

O hi'o, 64; river, 31. 

Oil (Iceland), 92. 

Oilstones (Ark.), 60. 

Oil trees, 143. 

Oise River (waz), 126. 

O ke eho'bee. Lake, 53. 

<) k/iotsk'. Sea of, 148. 
Oklaho'ma, 61; city, 61. 
Olive, 79, 121, 122, 147, 
166. 

O lyin'pi a, 80. 

O'ma ha, 73. 

Oman', 147. 

Omsk', 149. 

() nei'da, 43. 

Onions, 97. 

On tii'ri o, 90. 

Opium, 144, 146, 147. 

O por'to, 121. 

O ran', 166. 

Oranges, 56, 79, 81, 93, 
109, 121, 122, 156, 159. 
Orange Free State, 159, 
160. 

Orbit, 9. 

Or'e gon, 80. 

O ri no'co, 100. 

O ri za'ba (-sa'ba), 93. 

O sage', 72. 

O'saka, 143. 

Osh'kosh, 69. 

Ostend', 131. 

Ostrich, 154,169; feathers, 
155, 166, 169, 160. 

Os we'go, 46; river, 46. 
Ot'tawa, 90. 

Ottum'wa, 72. 


Oio'en? bor o (-bur-), 64. 
Ox'ford, Miss., 57; Eng., 
118. 

Oysters, 49, 60. 

O'zark Mts., 51. 

Pa chu'ca, 95. 

Pacific Ocean, 16, 28. 
Pacific Highlands, 26, 31; 
Climate, 34; Resources, 
34. 

Pacif'ic Slope, 26, 34; Cli¬ 
mate, 34; Products, 34; 
Re.sources, 34. 

Pacific States, 78. 
Padu'cah, 64. 

Pai'sley, 118. 

Pa Igr'mo, 122. 

Pal'estine, 61, 116, 147. 
Palmetto, 51. 

Palm, date, 147; oil, 157, 
158. 

Pa'los, 121. 

Pa mil-', 135. 

Pam'li CO Sound, 63. 
Pampas, 100. 

Pan ama'. Isthmus of, 96; 
City, 96; hats, 106; State, 
96. 

Pa nay', 83. 

Paper, 41, 42. 

Pap'll a, 164. 

Park*, 103, 106. 
Paraguay', 109; tea (see 
mate); river, 102 . 
Parallels, 10. 

Par a mar'i bo, 104. 

Pa ra na', 102. 

Par'is, 120. 

Parks (Col.), 76. 

Park'ers burg, 50. 
Parliament, 117. 

Pas a dS'na, 80. 

Pas'co, 106. 

Pat a go'ni a, 109. 
Pataps'co, 48. 

Pat'erson, 46. 

Pat'na, 145. 

Paw tuck'et, R. I., 42. 
Peaches, 47, 54, 146. 
Peanuts, 54. 

Pearls, 145, 146, 147, 160. 
Pease, 115. 

Peat, 118. 

Pe chi IT', Gulf of, 137. 

Pe ch 6 ra River, 130. 
Pekin', 141. , 

Pe ling' Mts., 137. 

Pe lo'tas(-tash), 103. 
Pem'ba, 163. 

Pe nang', 145. 

Peninsula, 14. 

Penn syl va'ni a, 47. 

Pe nob'scot River, 40. 

Pen sa co'la, 67. 

Pe o'ri a, 66 . 

Pepper, 164. 

Per nam bu'co, 103. 

Persia (-sha), 146. 

Pe ru', 106. 

Peruvians, 30. 

Pe'ter? burg, 50. 
Pg'trograd, 131. 
Petroleum, 47, 50, 60, 64, 
65, 70, 73, 90, 131, 143, 
145, 149, 159. 

Phases, 6 . 

Phil a del'phi a, 47. 
Philippine? (or-pen?),83. 
Phoe'nix, 78. 

Phosphates, 66 , 67, 1.56. 
Pictured Rocks, 68 . 

Pi ed'mont Plateau, 30. 
Pierre, 70. 

Pie ter mar'itz burg, 160. 
Pike’s Peak, 74. 

Pil CO may'o River, 101. 
Pilgrims, 34. 

Pineapples, 57, 81, 82, 97. 
Pine Bluff, 60. 

Piq'ua (pik'-), 65. 

Pi rae'us, 133. 


Pitch, 56. 

Pitts'burgh, 47. 

Pitts'field, 42. 

Plains, 16. 

Plane, 9. 

Planetoids, 6 . 

Planets, 6 . 

Plantain, Mexico, 93; West 
Indie.s, 97. 

Plants, range of, 21. 
Plateau Region, 77. 
Plateaus, 16. 

Platinum, 105, 130, 148, 

164. 

PlStie River, 73. 

Plumbago, 145. 

Plymouth Colony, 34. 

P 6 River, 112, 122. 

Points, Cardinal, 8 ; Semi- 
Cardinal, 8 . 

Po'land, 131. 

Polaris, 8 . 

Poles, 8 . 

Pol y ne'si a (-shi-), 164. 
Pomegi-anates, 119, 146. 
Pom pe'ii (pom pa'ye), 122. 
Pon'^e, 82. 

Po po ca te pet'l, 93. 
Porcelain, 120, 128, 140, 
142. 

Pork, 38. 

Port E liz'a beth, 169. 

Port au Ihince (port '6 
prills), 97. 

Port Hu'ron, 68 . 

Port'land, Conn., 44; Me., 
41; Oregon, 80. 

Por to A le'gre, 103. 

Por'to Ri'co, 81. 

Port Sa id', 155. 
Ports'mouth, New Hamp¬ 
shire, 41; Va., 60; Eng¬ 
land, 118. 

Port Su dan', 155. 
Por'tugal, 121. 

Portuguese East Africa, 
160. 

Position, how determined, 
10 . 

Potatoes, 41, 68 , 72, 90, 92, 
97, 118; sweet, 106. 

Po to'mac River, 44. 

Po to si', 107. 

Pottery (see porcelain). 
Potts'ville, 47. 

Fough keep'sie (-kip'-), 46. 
Power loom, 64. 

Prague, 128. 

Prairies, 16, 31, 61, 130, 
152. 

Precious stones, see ruby, 
diamond, etc. 

President (U. S.), 35. 

Pre tO'ri a, 160. 

Pri'bilof' Islands, 81. 
Prime Meridian, H. 

Prince Ed'ward Is., 91. 
Prince'ton, 47. 

Proc'tor, 42. 

Progre'so, 95. 

Projections, Conical, 13; 

Spherical, 13. 
Promontory, 14. 

Prov'i dence, 42. 

Pro'vo, 78. 

Pruss'ia (prush'a), 126. 
Pruth River, 126. 

Pue'bla (pwa'bla), 95. 
Pueb'lo, 76. 

Pueblos (loz), 74. 

Puer'to Prin'cT pe (pwar - 
to), 97. 

Pu'get Sound, 80. 

Pu las'ki, 63. 

Pulque (pul'ka), 93. 
Pun'jab, 137. 

Pursuits Industrial, 22. 
Pyramids, 165. 

Pyr'enee?, 110. 

Que bee', 90, 

Queen Qhar'lotte Is., 89. 


Queens'land, 163. 

Queens'town, 118. 

Que re'ta ro (ka-), 95. 

Quicksilver, 60, 79, 83, 93, 
96, 105, 106, 121, 140, 
164. 

Quiii'cy (-zi), 111., 66 . 

Qui'to (ke'-), 105. 

Races, Civilization of, 22. 

Ra ^Tne', 69. 

Railroads, 156, 167, 158, 
169, 160. 

Rain, 19. 

Raisins, 79, 121, 147. 

lU'Mgh, N. C., 55. 

Ran goon', 143, 146. 

Rapids, 40. 

Raw'lin?, 76. 

Read'ing, 47. 

Red River, 31. 

Red River of the North, 70. 

Red Sea, 134. 

Reefs, 163, 164. 

Re gi'na, 91. 

Reims, 120. 

Reindeer, 92, 120. 

Religions, 23 (see Chris¬ 
tianity, Judaism, etc.); 
in Africa. 

Re'no, 77. 

Republic, 23. 

Re pub'li can River, 73. 

Reservations, Indian, 61. 

Re un'ion (-yun) Is., 160. 

Rev al', 131. 

Revolution of the earth, 9. 

Reykjavik (rik'ya vik), 92. 

Rhine, 112. 

Rhinoceros, 143, 154. 

RAode Is'land, 42. 

RAodes, 123. 

RAo de'si a, 116, 169; 

South, 160; North, 160. 

RAQne River, 119. 

Rice; Africa, 158; China, 
140; Hawaii, 82; India, 
144; Indo-China, 143; 
Italy, 122; Japan, 142; 
Java, 164; Korea, 143; 
Philippines, 83; Porto 
Rico, 81; South Amer¬ 
ica, 108. United States: 
Texas, 60; North Caro¬ 
lina, 65; South Carolina, 
56; Georgia, 56; Florida, 
56; Louisiana, 58. 

Rich'mond, Ind., 65; Va., 
60. 

RT'ga, 131. 

Rings, 6 . 

Ri' o de Ja nei' r 6 ( zha-), 103. 

Ri'o de la Pla'ta, 100. 

Ri' o Gran'de, 28. 

RT'o Gran'de do Sul', 103. 

Ri o Ne'gro, 100. 

Rivers, offices of, 17. 

River system.?, 17. 

Ro'a noke, 50. 

Roch'ester, 46. 

Roch'ester, 46. 

Rock'ford, 66 . 

Rock Hill, 56. 

Rock'land, 41. 

Rock Springs, 76. 

Rocky Mountains, 26, 31. 

Rocky Mountain States, 74. 

Rome, Ga., 56; Italy, 122. 

Rosa'rio, 108. 

Roses, 132, 146. 

Rosewood, 96. 

Rosin, 51. 

Rotation of the earth, 8. 

Rot'ter dam, 123. 

Roubaix', 120. 

Rouen' (an), 120. 

Row ma'ni a, 132. 

Rubber: Africa, 165, 167, 
168, 159, 169; Central 
America, 96; Philippine 
Is., 83; South America, 
104, 105, 106, 107. 


Ruby, 143, 148. 

Russia (Rush's), 130. 

Russian Turkestan, 149. 

Ru wen zO'ri Mountains, 
150. 

Rye, 119, 148. 

Sabine' River, 59. 

Sa'co (town and river), 41. 

Sac ra men'to, 70; river, 78. 

Sag'i nawj (town and bay), 

68 . 

Sage-bush, 77. 

Sag we na,y' River, 89. 

Sa ha'ra, 150. 

St. An'tho ny. Falls of, 69. 

St. Aw'gus tine, 67. 

St. Bar thol'o mew, 96. 

St. Ber'nard, 122, 133. 

St. Etienne (saNatyen'), 
120 . 

St. EQ sta'ti us (-she lus), 
96. 

St. Goth'ard Pass, 122. 

St. He le'na, 159. 

St. John, 90; river, 89. 

St. Johns, 91. 

St. Johns'bury, 42. 

St. Jo'seph, 72. 

St. Lawrence River, 28; 
gulf of, 26. 

St. Lgw'is (or -i), 72. 

St. Paul, 69. 

St. Pierre (san'pierre), 89. 

St. TAom'as, 96. 

Sa'lem, Oregon, 80. 

Salisbury (salz'bgri), 160. 

Sa lo ni'«a, 133. 

Salt—Abyssinia, 166; Aus¬ 
tria, 128; China, 140;, 
Germany, 126; Great 
Britain, 115; Persia, 146; 
Spain, 121; Sahara, 167; 
Venezuela, 104. United 
States: Kansas, 73; Mich¬ 
igan, 68 ; New York. 45; 
Texas, 60. 

Salt Lake City, 78. 

Salvador', 96. 

Sal wen' River, 137. 

Sam ar kand' (saui ar- 
kant'), 149. 

Sa mo'a, 164. 

Sa na', 147. 

San An to'ni 6 , 60. 

San Di e'go, 60. 

Sandalwood, 160, 164. 

Sandstone, Ark., 60;Texas, 
60. 

Sandus'ky, 65. 

San Fran ^is'eo, 79. 

San Ja ^in'to, 60. 

San Joaquin (ho a ken) 
river, 78. 

San Jose' (h5-), 79; Cen¬ 
tral America, 96. 

San Jiiiin' (hu-), 82. 

San Luis Po to si' 96. 

San Ma ri'no, 125. 

San Sal va dor', 96. 

San ta Bar ba ra, 74. 

San ta Cla'ra, Valley, 79. 

San'ta Cruz, 96. 

San'ta Fe', 74. 

San ta Lu' 5 i a, 97. 

San ti a'go de Cq'ba, 97; 
(Chili), 107. 

San'to Do min'go, 97. 

San'tOs, 103. 

San Pan lo (soun pou'lo),. 
103. 

Sir a to'ga, 46. 

Sardine, 119. 

Sar din'i a, 121. 

Sas katch'e wan, 91; river,. 
28. 

Satellites, 6 . 

Sault Sainte Marie (so- 
sant ma'ri), 69; Falls of, 
68 . 

Sa van'nah, 66 ; river, 66 . 

Sax'o ny, 126. 











176 


Scan di na'vi a, 129. 

S^/te nec'ta dy, 46. 

S€Auyl‘kill, 44. 

Scil'ly Is., 115. 

Sci 6‘to, 62. 

Scot'land, 115. 

Scran'ton, 47. 

Sea. 16. 

Sea Island, 56. 

Seasons, 12. 

Se at'tle, 80. 

Se da'li a, 72. 

Seine River, 119. 

Sel'nia, 57. 

Selvas, 100. 

Sen e gal', 158. 

Sen'ne, 131. 

Seoul', 143. 

Serfs, 119. 

Ser'bia, 124. 

Se ville' 121. 

Se'vres, 120. 

Shadow, circular, 8. 

Shangha'i, 141. 

Shas'ta Mt., 74. 

Shawls, 144. 

Sheboy'gan, 69. 

Sheep — Afghanistan and 
Baluchistan, 146; Ar¬ 
gentina, 108; Barbary 
States, 156; Faroe Is¬ 
lands, 124; France, 119; 
Great Britain, 115; Ice¬ 
land, 92; Mexico, 95; 
New Zealand, 163; Rus¬ 
sia, 130; Scandinavia, 
129; Siberia, 148; Tas¬ 
mania, 163; Tibet, 141. 
United States: Arizona, 
77; Idaho, 78; Indiana, 
65; Iowa, 72; Kansas, 
73; Missouri, '72; Mon¬ 
tana. 76; Nebraska, 73; 
Ohio, 64; Oregon, 80; 
Utah, 78; Venezuela, 
104. 

Shef'field, 117. 

Sher'i dan, 76. 

Sher'man, 61. 

Shet'land Is., 116. 

Shiko'ku, 142. 

Ship building, 88, 91, 120, 
131. 

Sho mer', 147. 

Shore, 14. 

Shreve'pOrt, 58. 

Si am', 143. 

SI ang tan', 141. 

Si be'ri a, 148. 

Si^'i ly, 121. 

Si er'ra Le 6'ne, 115, 168. 

Si er'ra Ne va'da, 26, 31. 

Silk, 119, 122, 126, 140, 
142, 144, 146, 147. 

Silk Goods, 46, 119, 126, 
149. 

Silver, 70, 74, 76, 77, 78, 
80, 83, 93, 96, 102, 106, 
106, 107, 140, 142, 148, 
160, 163. 

Simoon, 147. 

Sim'plon Pass, 122. 

Si'nal Mt., 147. 

Sin ga pore', 143, 146. 

Sin ki kng', 140. 

tiioux City, 72. 

Sipua: Falls, 70. 

Si sal Hemp, 67, 93, 97, 
160. 

Slavonic race, 128, 130. 

S16 vak'i a, 128. 

Smyr'na (sm5r'-), 133,148. 

Snow line, 19. 

Snow Mts., 150. 

So fi'a, 133. 

SO'koto, 157. 

Solar System, 6. 

Solfata'ra. 16, 


INDEX—PRONUNCIATIONS. 


Sol'o mon Is., 162. 
Solstices, 12. 

So ina'li Land, 160. 

Son'ne berg (zOn'neberg), 
126. 

Sono'ra, 93. 

Soo Canal, 68. 

Sorghum, 73. 

Sounds, 16. 

South America, 98-109. 
Southampton (suth hamp'- 
ton), 118. 

South Australia, 163. 
South Bend, 65. 

South Carolina, 56. 

South Dakota, 70. 
Southern States, 50. 

South Platte, 76. 

South Port'land, 39. 

South Shet'land, 24. 
Southwest Africa, 169. 
Spain, 121, 

Spanish Peninsula, 121 
Spar'tan burg, 56. 
Spheroid, oblate, 8. 

Spices, 147, 159, 164. 
Spinning-jenny, 64. 

Spit, 16. 

Spitz berg'en, 19. 

Spheres of influence, 154. 
Spokftne', 80. 

Sponges, 57, 97, 122. 148. 
Sprlng'field,Ill., 66; Mass., 
42; Mo., 72; Ohio, 65. 
Standard Time, 85. 

Sta no voi' Mts., 135. 

Stark'ville, 57. 

Stars, fixed, 5; shooting, 6. 
Steamship Lines, 164. 
Steamboat Navigation, 120. 
Steel, 47, 67, 64, 65, 131. 
Steppes, 134, 148. 
Still'water, 70. 

Stock'holm, 129. 

Stock Raising. (See cattle. 
Sheep, etc.) 

Stock'ton, 80. 

Stockyards (Chicago), 66. 
Straits, 16. 

Straits Settlements, 115, 
143, 145. 

Stettin', 127. 

Stras'bourg, 120. 

Strom'bo li, 122. 

Stutt'gart, 127. 

Sua'kln, 166. 

Su chau' (-chou'), 141. 
Su'ere, 107. 

Sji dan'*, 157. 

Suez' Canal, 166; Isthmus 
■’of, 160; City, 156. 

Sugar, cane, 66, 68, 60, 81, 
82, 83, 93, 96, 97, 103, 
104, 106, 108, 143, 144, 
165, 159, 160, 163, 164; 
beet, 68, 78, 79, 126,128. 
Su lai man' Mts., 146. 
Sulphur, 83, 122, 142. 
Suma'tra, 164. 

Sun, apparent motion, 6,9; 

rays of, 11. 

Sungft'ria, 141. 

Su pe'ri or, 69. 

Sus que han'na River, 44. 
Swe'den, 129. 

Swit'zer land, 127. 

Syd'ney, 163. 

Syr' a cuse, 46. 

Syr' i a, 147. 

Taban (taban'), 143. 
Table-land, 16, 93. 

Ta briz', 146. 

Ta eo'ma, 80. 

Ta'gus River, 113. 

Tahiti, 120. 

Tal la has'see, 67. 

Tallow, 103, 108. 


Tam'pa, 57. 

Tam pi'co, 95. 
Tananari'vo, 163. 

Tan gan yi'ka, ll6, 162, 
160. 

Tan gier', 166. 

Tapioca, 102. ■ 

Tapir, 138. 

Tar, 51. 

Taro, 82. 

Tar'ta ry, 137. 

Ta,sh'kend, 149. 
Ta§ma'nia, 163. 

Tatars, 134,140. 

Taun'ton, 42. 

Tea — Assam, 145; British 
India, 144; Burma, 145; 
Ceylon, 145; China, 140; 
Formosa, 143; Japan, 
142; Java, 164; Para¬ 
guay, 109; Russia, 130; 
U. S., 56. 

Teak, 83, 143, 146. 

Te gu Qi gal'pa, 96. 
T6heran', 146. 

Te /tuan te pec', 94. 
Telegraph Lines—in China, 
140; in Egypt, 165; in 
.lapan, 142; in Persia, 
146. 

Temple, 61. 

T6nerif/e' Mt., 150. 
Tennessee', 55; river, 31. 
Ter're Haute (hot), 65. 
Ter'rell, 61. 

Tex'as, 60. 

Tfii iin' Shan Mts., 135. 

Ti b6t', 140, 141. 

Tides, 16; high or flood, 
16; low or ebb, 16. 

Ti fin'tsin, 141. 

Ti er'ra del Fue'go, 109. 
Tif'fln, 65. 

Tif lis', 149. 

Tiger, 143. 

Ti'gris River, 138. 

Tim buk'tu, 157. 

Time, how measured, 9; 

difference of, 9. 

Timber, .50, 51, 80, 90, 91, 
103, 107, 129, 132, 145, 
163, 164. 

Ti mor' Is., 162. 

Tin—Australia, 161; Banka 
and Billiton Is., 164; 
Bolivia, 107; Great Brit¬ 
ain, 115; Indo-China, 
143; New Caledonia, 164. 
Titlea'ea Lake, 106. 
Tinmen', 149. 

Tobacco — Algeria, 156; 
Armenia, 147; Asia 
Minor, 147; Brazil, 103; 
Borneo, 164; Canada, 90; 
Central America, 96; Co¬ 
lombia, 105; Egypt, 155; 
Germany, 126; India, 
144; Indo-China, 143; 
Java, 164; La Plata 
States, 108; Manchuria, 
141; Mexico, 93; Para^ 
guay, 109; Persia, 146; 
Peru, 106; Philippine Is., 
83; Porto Rico, 81; Sal¬ 
vador, 96; Sumatra, 164; 
Syria, 147; Tunis, 156; 
Turkey, 147; West In¬ 
dies, 97; United States: 
Connecticut, 44; Ken¬ 
tucky, 64; Maryland, 49; 
Missouri, 72; North Caro¬ 
lina, 55; Ohio, 64; Penn¬ 
sylvania, 47; Tennes.see, 
55; Virginia, 50; Wis¬ 
consin, 68. 

Tobolsk', 149. 

Tocantins' River, 101. 
To'kyo, 142. 


To le'do, 65. 

Tombig'bee River, 57. 
Tomsk, 149. 

Ton'ga Is., 162. 

Tope'ka, 73. 

Toron'to, 90. 

Tou'IOn', 120. 

Tom loMse', 120. 

Trade winds, 18. 
Transportation, 23; in Rus¬ 
sia, 130; in Asia, 149; in 
Africa, 156; in China, 
140; in Madagascar, 160. 
Transvaal', 160. 

Trgnti'no, 122. 

Tren'ton, 47. 

Tries'te, 122. 

Trin i d^', 97, 104. 

Trip's li, 156. 

TrSnd'lyem, 129. 

Tropical fruits, 56. 

Tropics, 10. 

Troy, 46. 

Truck farming, 56. 

Tsetse fly, 154. 

Tua'regs, 157. 

Tiic'son (or tuc'son), 78. 
Tu cu man', 108. 

Tundras (tundraj), 134, 
148. 

Tu'nis, 120, 156. 

Tunnels (Alpine), 122. 
Tu'rin, 122. 

Tur k6s tan', 149. 

Tur'key,' 132, 147. 

Turks Island, 97. 
Turpentine, spirits of, 61. 
Turquoise, 146. 

Turtles, 97. 

Tus ca loo'sa, 57. 

Tussac gras.s, 109. 
Tutui'la, 164. 

Typhoons, 83. 

U ca va'li River, 100. 

U gan'da Protectorate, 160. 
Union of South Africa, 116, 
159. 

United States — Physical 
Divisions, 30; Additions 
of Territory, 36; Govern¬ 
ment of, 35; Chief Cities, 
35; Commerce, 38; Po¬ 
sition and Rank, 30. 
y per'navik, 92. 

'po lu, 164. 

'ral Mts., 110; river, 130. 
y ru guay', 109. 

U'taA (or u'ta/i), 78. 

U'ti ca, 46. 

U'trecht, 123. 

Vaal River, 160. 

Val dai' Hills, 112. 
Valen'cia (-shia), Vene¬ 
zuela, 104; Spain, 121. 
Vale of Kash'mir, 145. 
Valley City, 70. 

Valleys, 15. 

Valley of California, 34. 
Valley of Virginia, 49. 

Val la do lid', 113. 

Val pa rai'so, 108. 
Vancou'ver Is., 91; City, 
91. 

Vanilla — Africa, 160; 
Central America, 96; 
Mexico, 93. 

Vegetation, regions of, 21. 
Veins, 15. 

Velvets, 122. 

Ven e zue'la, 104. 

Ven'ice, 122 
Ve'ra Cruz, 96. 

Vermil'ion, 70. . 
Vermont', 42. 

VersaiUeg', 120. 

Ve su'vi us Mt., 122. 


Vicks'burg, 57. 

Victo'ria, 91; Australia, 
163. 

Victoria Falls, 163. 
Victoria Ny an'za, 150,162. 
Vi en'na, 128. 

Vin Rennes', 66. 

Vine, 126, 147, 149. 

Vir pn'i a, 49. 

Virginia City, 77. 

Vis'tula River, 131. 

Via di VOS tok', 149. 
Volcanoes, 15, 122. 

Vol'ga River, 130. 

Vosges (vQzh) Mts., 125. 

Wa chu'sett, Mt., 39. 
Wa'co, 61. 

Wales, 115. 

Wal'la Wal'la, 80. 
War'saw, N. Y., 46; Po¬ 
land, 131. 

Wa'satch Mts., 77. 
W^h'ington, City, 49; 

State, 80. 

Watches, 133. 

Water, divisions of, 13. 
Water buffalo, 83. 
Wa'terbury (-bgr-), 44. 
Waterfalls, 40. 

Wa'terford, 118. 

Water gaps, 45. 

Waterloo', 131; Iowa, 73. 
Watersheds, 20. 
Wa'tertown, 46. 
Wa'terviUe, 41. 

Wat'ling (wot^) Is., 28, 
97. 

Wau'sau, 69. 

Waves, 16. 

Welland Canal, 38, 88. 
Wel'ling ton, 163. 

We ser (va'zer) River, 126. 
West Central States, 71. 
Western Australia, 162. 
Western Tur k6s tan', 149. 
West In'die§, 30, 96. 
Westminster Abbey, 117. 
West Point, 46. 

West Rut'land, 42. 

West Virginia, 50. 

Wey'er’s Cave, 60. 

Wheat — Armenia, 147; 
Barbary States, 156; 
British India, 144; Chile, 
107; France, 119; Great 
Britain and Ireland, 115; 
India, 144; Italy, 122; La 
Plata States, 108; Man- 
chm-ia, 141; Manitoba, 
91; Ontario, i)0; Persia, 
146; Russia, 130; Syria, 
147; United States: Cali¬ 
fornia, 79; Georgia, 66; 
Illinois, 66; Kansas, 73; 
Minnesota, 69; Mi.ssouri, 
72; Nebraska, 73; New 
Mexico, 74; New York, 
46; North Dakota, 70; 
Oklahoma, 61; South 
Dakota, 70; Tennessee, 
55, Texas, 60; Virginia, 
50; Washington, 80 
Wisconsin, 68. 

Wheel'ing, 60. 

Whetstones, 60. 

Whirls, 17. 

White Mts., 30, 40. 

Wich'i ta, 73. 

Wilkes'-Barre (-i), 47. 

Wil la'mette River, 80. 
Will'iams port, 47. 

Wil li man'tic, .44. 

Wil'ining ton, 47, 54. 

Wind Belts, 18. 

Winds — Offices of, 18; 
Trade Winds: effect on 
chmes, 18. 


Wine — Africa, 166, 159; 
Asia, 146; France, 119; 
Germany, 126; Italy, 122; 
Portugal, 121; Spain 
121 . 

Win'nipeg, 91. 

Wi nO'na, 69. 
Win'ston-Sa'lem, 66. 

Wis con'sin, 68. 

Wood pulp, 120. 

Wool—Arabia, 147; Asi¬ 
atic Turkey, 147; Aus- 
traUa, 161; Belgium, 124; 
Barbary States, 156; 
Cape Colony, 159; Den¬ 
mark, 124; Germany, 
126; Iceland, 92; Italy, 
122; La Plata States, 
108; Morocco, 156; New 
Zealand, 163; Persia, 146; 
Russia, 130; Tasmania, 
163; Turkey, 132; 
United States: Indiana, 
65; Mich., 68; Missouri, 
72; Montana, 76; New 
Hampshire, 42; New 
Mexico, 74; Ohio, 64; 
Oregon, 80; Texas, 60; 
Utah, 78; Wyoming, 76. 
Woolen goods, 41, 42, 119, 
124, 126, 131, 163. 

Woon .sock'et, 42. 
Worces'ter, 42. 

World, new, 24; old, 24. 
IFran'gell Is., 29. 

Wur'tern berg, 126. 

Wj’ an dot' cave, 65. 

Wy 6'ming, 76. 

Xin gu River (hen go), 

101 . 

Yablonoi Mts., 137. 

Yak, 139. 

Yakutsk', 137. 

Ya'lu River, 137. 

Yam'; 97, 164. 

YSng'tze River, 136. 
YSnk'ton, 70. 

Yarkand', 141. 

Yaz'po River, 57. 

Year, 6. 

Yellowstone Park, 76; 

canon, 76; river, 74. 
Yem'en, 147. 

Yen i se'i River, 138. 

Y6z'o, 142. 

Yokoha'ma, 143. 

Yon'kers, 46. 

Yo sem'i te Valley, 79. 
Youngs'town, 65. 

Yu ca tan, 95. 

Yu-go-slav'i a (yoo-), 132. 
Yu'kon R., 28; ter., 91. 

Zam be'zi River, 152. 
Zane?'viUe, 65. 

Zan'te, 113. 

Zanzibar' 115, 160. 

Za'ra, 125. 

Zebra, 154. 

Zhit'o mir, 125. 

Zinc—Algeria, 156; Brazil, 
102; China, 140; Ger¬ 
many, 126; Indo-China, 
143; Russia, 130; Tunis, 
166; United States: Ar¬ 
kansas, 60; Kansas, 73; 
Missouri, 72; New Jer¬ 
sey, 46; Virginia, 50; 
Wisconsin, 68. 

Zodiac, Twelve signs of, 

6 . 

Zones, 12. 

Zu'lu land, 160. 

Z'qni, 76. 

Zu'rich, 127. 

Zuy der Zee', 123. 










RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL EVENTS. 


The World War. — The war which began in August, 1914, invoh’ed 
a far larger part of the earth than any other in history. More 
than nine tenths of the people in the world were seriously affected 
by it. It was essentially a struggle between “the Central Powers,’’ 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, on one side, 
and “the Allies,’’ Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Italy, 
Japan, Serbia, Roumania, and Greece, on the other side. The 
Allies were actively assisted by the United States, Canada, Australia, 
New Zealand, and South Africa. The United States entered the 
war in 1917 and a few months afterward Russia withdrew from it. 


In Germany, the Kaiser and the rulers of all the lesser states 
abdicated, and the Empire became a Federal Republic. Germany 
returned to France the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which had 
been acquired by conquest in 1871. As compensation for the 
destruction of French mines, Germany gave to France the coal 
mines of the Sarre Basin. It also ceded some small districts to 
Belgium and to Denmark. Germany suffered the greatest loss 
of home territory on the eastern border, where two provinces, in¬ 
habited chiefly by Poles, were ceded to the new republic of Poland. 
Thus the German province of East Prussia is separated from the 



In the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers were defeated and sued 
for peace. In June, 1919, a- treaty was signed at Versailles, which, 
together with other treaties since negotiated, made greater changes 
in political geography than ever before occurred in one century. 
One result was the overthrow, by external force and internal revo¬ 
lution, of four great empires, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, 
and Turkey. Before the war Europe was divided into twenty 
important nations, of which only three were republics. Now there 
are about thirty nations, of which one half are republics. 


main body of Germany by Polish territory. The German port of 
Danzig has been made a free city, under control of the Allies. Ger¬ 
many has lost in Europe about one seventh of its former area, and 
about one fourteenth of its population. German losses outside 
of Europe are numerically very large, including all foreign posses¬ 
sions. 

The Austro-Hungarian monarchy was broken to pieces. The pres¬ 
ent Austrian Republic is German in language and sympathies. In 
population it ranks with the Netherlands and Belgium, in resources 


177 





















































































178 


RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL EVENTS. 


with Switzerland. The Republic of Hungary is somewhat larger and 
stronger than Austria. The northern provinces of the former em¬ 
pire are inhabited by North Slavs. Galicia has become a part of 
Poland, and the rest of the northern provinces have united to 
form the Republic of Czechoslovakia, which is nearly as populous 
as Austria and Hungary combined, and far richer in resources. The 
southern provinces have joined Serbia and Montenegro to form 
Jugoslavia, the Kingdom of the South Slavs. Large eastern pro¬ 
vinces were added to Roumania. Small Austrian territories on the 


south slope of the Alps and the east coast of the Adriatic, which 
have an Italian population, have been ceded to Italy. The city of 
Fiume was made an independent state. 

In Russia, the Czar was deposed in 1917, and within the year the 
government fell into the hands of extreme radicals, called Bolsheviki. 
Their leaders believe in and fight for “the dictatorship of the proleta¬ 
riat,” which means absolute rule by manual laborers, the destruc¬ 
tion of capital and individual wealth, and the ownership of all prop¬ 
erty by the state. The state is called the Soviet Republic, and is theo¬ 
retically administered by Soviets, 
or Councils of Workmen. For 
tyranny, cruelty, and corruption, 
the administration has seldom 
been equaled. Most of the edu¬ 
cated and professional classes 
have been killed, driven out, or 
starved into submission, and all 
industries, including agriculture, 
have become inefficient. The 
Bolsheviki have won considera¬ 
ble military success, and domi¬ 
nate the great body of the coun¬ 
try with a capital at Moscow. 
Within the vast territory of the 
former Russian Empire, about 
twenty different states have at¬ 
tempted to maintain existence, 
blit most of them have been re¬ 
conquered by the Bolsheviki. 

In the west, the old Kingdom 
of Poland has been revived as a 
republic. The provinces which 
were divided more than a cen¬ 
tury ago between Russia, Aus¬ 
tria, and Germany, are reunited, 
with a capital at Warsaw. Fin¬ 
land has become an independent 
republic and the three Baltic 
provinces of Esthonia, Latvia, 
and Lithuania have each set up a 
separate government. In the 
Caucasus region several new 
states were set up, of which 
Georgia and Azerbaijan are the 
most important. The latter con¬ 
tains the rich petroleum field 
of Baku, and Georgia controls 
the petroleum shipping port of 
Batum, on the Black Sea. 

The Tvuks have not been fully 
expelled from Europe, but their 
rule over alien people, marked 
by centuries of oppression and 
plunder, is nearly ended. The 
territory of Turkey in Europe 
has been annexed to Greece, ex¬ 
cept the city of Constantinople, 
which is still the residence of 
the Sxiltan, and the capital of 
his empire. The city, together 













































































RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL EVENTS. 


179 


with the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, 
and the Dardanelles, is placed under inter¬ 
national control. The Turkish Empire 
in Asia is confined to the greater part of 
the plateau of Anatolia. A large district 
around the seaport of Smyrna is held by 
the Greeks. In the east, a Republic of 
Armenia was granted its independence, 
but most of it was promptly reconquered’ 
by the Turks. Of the remaining Turkish 
provinces, Mesopotamia and Palestine are 
under British control, and Syria under the 
French. Central Arabia remains unorgan¬ 
ized, but most of the Red Sea littoral 
forms the Arab Kingdom of Hedjaz under 
British influence. 

Of all the new countries which were once 
the victims of Turkish misrule, Roumania 
and Greece have made the largest gains. 

The territory and population of Roimiania 
have been doubled at the expense of Hun¬ 
gary and Russia. In position and re¬ 
sources, it is one of the most favored of 
interior states. Greece has attained, in 
large measiire, her dream of gathering all 
the Greek peoples under one flag. Her territory now extends to 
the Black Sea and includes nearly all the islands of the Aegean. 
The gain in area and population is nearly one third. 

Bulgaria has suffered some small losses of territory to Greece and 
Jugoslavia, and her ambition for conquest has been effectually 
curbed. Albania remains the outlaw of the Balkan family, and no 
method of control has yet been devised. 

The ousting of the Germans from the continent of Africa has 
simplified the map. The colonies of Togo and Kamerun have been 
divided between British and French control. German East Africa 
becomes Tanganyika Territory under the British flag, except a small 
area added to Belgian Kongo. German Southwest Africa is placed 
in care of the Union of South Africa. Egypt has severed all connec¬ 
tion with Turkey and has become a part of the British Empire. 

In the Pacific Ocean, the former German islands north of the 
Equator, and the lease of the Chinese province of Shantung, have 
been assigned to Japan. South of the equator the German Samoan 
Islands are assigned to New Zealand, and German New Guinea 
and the Bismarck Archipelago to Australia. 

The changes brought about by the World War have been the most 
destructive since the fall of the Roman Empire; yet, looked at in 
another way, they have been grandly constructive. France has 
be(in strengthened by the retiUTi of the lost provinces of Alsace and 
Lorraine, and has secured possession of some of the best mines of 
coal and iron in western Europe. Large areas have been added to 
the already vast empire of France in Africa. Italy has reached a 
goal long striven for, the unity of all Italian people under one flag. 
Three historic kingdoms have been restored, Poland, Czechoslovakia 
or greater Bohemia, and Jugoslavia or greater Serbia. Roumania 
and Greece have been raised to the rank of second class powers. 
The most momentous changes have occurred in the British Empire. 
In Africa, Britain now controls continuous territory from Egypt 
to the Cape of Good Hope, and is free to complete the construction 
of the transcontinental “Cape to Cairo railroad. Control of 
Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, and Mesopotamia have secured the Suez 


Canal and the Bagdad railway from at¬ 
tack, and have placed in British hands 
the main water and land routes of travel 
between Europe and India, Australia, and 
the Far East. 

The Old World has been largely made 
over. The New World remains without 
territorial changes as a result of the war. 

Iceland. — In 1918 Iceland became a 
sovereign state, but the King of Denmark 
remains also King of Iceland. Its govern¬ 
ment is carried on by a Legislature called 
the Althing, the members of which are 
chosen by universal suffrage. The execu¬ 
tive branch consists of a body of responsi¬ 
ble ministers acting under the King. 

UNITED STATES TERRITORIES AND 
PROTECTORATES. 

Alaska and Hawaii. — The United States now 
has two territories, Alaska and Hawaii. Each has 
a fully organized territorial government consisting 
of a governor appointed by the President, and an 
elective legislature and a delegate in Congress. 

Porto Rico is governed by a special act of Con¬ 
gress passed in 1917. Under this act, the members of both houses of the 
Legislature are elected by the people. The Governor and an Executive Council 
of six members are appointed by the President. 

The Philippine Islands have a Legislature composed of two houses, the 
members of which are elected by the people. The Executive consists of a 
Governor-General, a Vice-Governor,-who is also Secretary of the Department of 
Public Instruction, and an Auditor, appointed by the President of the United 
States, and five heads of departments, who are Filipinos appointed by the Gover¬ 
nor-General, with the consent of the Philippine Senate. 

Tutuila, etc. — The island of Tutuila and other small islands of the Samoa 
group belong to the United States. The commandant of the naval station on 
the fine harbor of Pagopago is governor of these islands. 

The Island of Guam, a station on the cable line between San Francisco and the 
Philippines, is governed by a United States naval officer. 

Republic of Panama. (See text, page 96.) 

Nicaragua. — In 1916, the Republic of Nicaragua by treaty granted to the 
United States the exclusive right to construct and maintain an interoceanic canal 
by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua together with a 99-year lease 
of Great Corn and Little Com islands in the Caribbean Sea, and a naval base on 
the Bay of Fonseca. 

Haiti. — In 191.5, the Congress of the Repuolic of Haiti ratified a treaty by 
which Haiti becomes a virtual protectorate of the United States. Internal order 
is maintained by an amied constabulary, commanded by officers from the United 
States Marine Corps. The finances of the republic are also administered by 
American officials. The United States assumes responsibility for the main¬ 
tenance of financial integrity and civil order, and the preservation of Haitian 
independence. 

Dominican Republic. — In 1916, the United States assumed a protectorate 
over the Dominican Republic which is even more thoroughgoing than that over 
Haiti. The native government is in abeyance and its functions are performed 
by United States naval officers. 

Virgin Islands. — In 1916 the United States bought for $25,000,000, the 
Danish West India islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John, lying east of 
Porto Rico, and commanding an important gateway to the Caribbean Sea. 

Cuba. — By treaty with Cuba in 1903, the United States exercises a protec¬ 
torate over that republic. 

Thus the United States has obtained by treaty virtual control of all the 
Greater Antilles except Jamaica. Such measures are justified as necessary for 
securing the safety of the Panama Canal. 






















POPULATION OF CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPENDENCIES 


Aberdeen, S.D. 

Akron, Ohio. 

Alameda, Calif. 

Albany, N.Y. 

A1 buquerque,N. Mex. 

Allentown, Pa. 

Alton, Ill. 

Altoona, Pa. 

Amsterdam, N.Y. .. 
Anaconda, Mont.... 

Andenson, Ind. 

Annapolis, Md. 

Ann Arbor, Mich... 

Anniston, Ala. 

Asheville, N.C. 

\storia, Oregon .... 

Athens, Ga. 

Atlanta, Ga. 

Atlantic City, N.J. . 

Auburn, .Maine _ 

Auburn, N.Y. 

Augusta, Ga. 

Augusta, Maine .... 

Aurora, Ill. 

Austin, Tex. 

Baltimore, Md. 

Bangor, Alaine. 

Barre, Vt. 

Baton Rouge, La.... 
Battle Creek, Mich. 

Bay City, Mich. 

Bayonne, N.J. 

Beaumont, Tex. 

Belleville, Ill. 

Bellingham, Wash. . 

Berkeley, Calif. 

Bethlehem, Pa. 

Beverly, Mass. 

Biddeford, Maine... 
Binghamton, N.Y... 
Birmingham, Ala. .. 

Bismarck, N.l). 

Bloomington, Ill. .. 

Boise, Idaho. 

Boston, Ma.ss. 

Bridgeport, Conn. .. 

Brockton, Mass. 

Brookline, Mass. ... 

Buffalo, N.Y. 

Burlington, Iowa ... 

Burlington, Vt. 

Butler, Pa. 

Butte, Mont. 

Cambridge, Mass.... 

Camden, N.J. 

Canton, Ohio. 

Carson City, Nev. .. 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
Central Falls, R.I... 

Charleston, S.C. 

Charleston, W.Va. . 

Charlotte, N.C. 

Chattanooga, Tenn.. 

Chel.sea, Mass. 

Chester, Pa. 

Cheyenne, Wyo. ... 

Chicago, Ill. 

Chicopee, .Mass. 

Cicero, Ill.. 

Cincinnati, ()hio.... 
Clarksburg, W.Va. . 
Cleveland, ()hio .... 

Clifton, N..J. 

Clinton, Iowa. 

Cohoes, N.Y. 

Colorado Spr’s, Colo. 

Columbia, S.C. 

Columbus, Ga. 

Columbus, Ohio. 

Concord, N.H. 

Council Bluffs, Iowa 

Covington, Ky. 

Cranston, R.I. 

Cumberland, Md.... 

Dallas, Tex. 

Danville, Ill. 

Danville, Va. 

Davenport, Iowa ... 

Dayton, Ohio. 

Decatur, Ill. 

Denver, Colo. 

Des Moines, Iowa .. 

Detroit, Mich. 

Dover, Del. 

Dover, N.II. 


Pop. 1920 

Pop. 1910 

14,537 

10,753 

208,435 

69,067 

28,806 

23,.383 

113,344 

100 , 2.53 

15,1.57 

11,020 

73,502 

61,913 

24,682 

17,528 

60,331 

52,127 

33,524 

31,267 

11,668 

10,134 

29,767 

22,476 

.11,214 

8,609 

19,516 

14,817 

17,734 

12,794 

28,604 

18,762 

14,027 

9,599 

16,748 

14,913 

200,616 

1.54,839 

,50,707 

46,150 

16,985 

15,064 

36,192 

34,668 

62,.548 

41,040 

14,114 

13,211 

.36,397 

29,807 

34,876 

29,860 

733,826 

5.58,485 

26,978 

24,803 

10,008 

10,734 

21,782 

14,897 

36,164 

25,267 

47 , 5.54 

4.5,166 

76,7.54 

55,545 

40,422 

20,640 

24,823 

21,122 

25,585 

24,298 

56,036 

40,434 

50,368 

12,837 

22,561 

18,6.50 

18,008 

17,079 

66,800 

48,443 

178,806 

132,686 

7,122 

6,443 

28,725 

25,768 

21,393 

17,368 

748,060 

670,685 

143,5.55 

102 , 0.54 

66,254 

66,878 

37,748 

27,792 

606,775 

423,715 

24,057 

24,324 

22,779 

20,468 

23,778 

20,728 

41,611 

39,165 

109,694 

104,839 

116,.309 

94,538 

87,091 

50,217 

1,685 

2,466 

45,.566 

32,811 

24,174 

22,764 

67,957 

58,833 

39,608 

22,996 

46,3.38 

34,014 

57,895 

44,604 

43,184 

32,452 

68,030 

38,537 

1.3,829 

11,.320 

2,701,705 2,18.5,283 

36,214 

25,401 

44,995 

14 , 5.57 

401,427 

363,591 

27,869 

9,201 

796,841 

560,663 

26,470 

11,869 

24,161 

25,577 

22,987 

24,709 

30,105 

29,078 

. 37,524 

26,319 

31,125 

20,564 

237,031 

181,611 

22,167 

21,497 

36,162 

29,292 

57,121 

53,270 

29,407 

21,107 

29,837 

21 , 8.39 

158,976 

92,104 

33,776 

27,871 

21,639 

19,020 

56,727 

43,028 

162 , . 5.59 

116,577 

43,818 

31,140 

2.56,491 

21.3,381 

126,468 

86,368 

993,678 

465,766 

4,042 

3,720 

13,029 

13,247 


Dubuque, Iowa .... 

Duluth, Minn. 

Durham, N.C. 

East Chicago, Ind. . 
East Cleveland, (.)hio 

Easton. Pa. 

East Orange, N.J. .. 
East St. Louis, Ill... 

Elgin, Ill. 

Elizabeth, N.J. 

Elkhart, Ind. 

Elmira, N.Y. 

El Paso, Tex. 

Erie, Pa. 

Evanston, Ill. 

Evansville, Ind. 

Everett, Mass. 

Everett, Wash. 

Fall River, M;iss. ... 

Fargo, N.D. 

Fitchburg, Mass. 

Flint, Mich. 

Fond du Lac, Wis. . 
Fort Smith, Ark. ... 
Fort Wayne, Ind. .. 

Fort Worth, Tex_ 

Frankfort, Ky. 

Fresno, Calif. 

Galesburg, Ill. 

Galveston, Tex. 

Gary, Ind. 

Gloucester, Mass.... 
Grand Forks, N.D... 
Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Great Falls, Mont... 
Green Bay, Wis. ... 
Greensboro, N.C. ... 

Greenville, S.C. 

Hagerstown, Md.... 
Hamilton, Ohio .... 

Hammond, Ind. 

Hamtramck, Mich... 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

Hartford, Conn. 

Haverhill, Mass. 

Hazleton, Pa. 

Helena, Mont. 

Highland I’ark, Mich. 

Hoboken, N.J. 

Holyoke, Mass. 

Honolulu, Hawaii .. 
Hot Springs, Ark. .. 

Houston, Tex. 

Huntington, W. Va. 
Hutchinson, Kans. . 
Indianapolis, Ind. .. 

Irvington, N.J. 

Jackson, Mich. 

Jackson, Miss. 

Jack-son, Tenn. 

Ja'cksonville, Fla. .. 
Jamestown, N.Y.... 
Jefferson (Mty, Mo. . 
Jersey City, N.J.... 

Johnstown, Pa. 

Joliet, Ill. 

Joplin, Mo. 

Kalamazoo, Mich. .. 
Kansas City, Kans.. 
Kansas City, Mo.... 

Kearny, N. J. 

Kenosha, Wis. 

Key West, Fla. 

King.ston, N.Y. 

Knoxville, Tenn. ... ■ 

Kokomo, Ind. 

La Crosse, Wis. 

Lafayette, Ind. 

Lakewood, Ohio.... 

Lancaster, Pa. 

Lansing, Mich. 

Laredo, Tex. 

Lawrence, Mass. ... 
Leavenworth, Kans. 

Lebanon, Pa. 

Lewiston, Maine ... 

Lexington, Ky. 

Lima. Ohio. 

Lincoln, Nebr. 

Little Rock, Ark.... 
Long Beach, Calif. . 

Lorain, Ohio. 

Los Angeles, Calif. . 

Louisville, Ky. 

Lowell, Mass. 


Pop. 19io 

39.141 

98.917 
21,719 
36,967 
27,292 
33,813 

50.710 
66,767 
27,454 
95,783 

24.277 
45,393 
77,560 
93,372 
37,234 
85,264 

40.120 
27,644 

120,485 

21,961 

41,029 

91,599 

23,427 

28,870 

86,549 

106,482 

9,806 

45,086 

23,834 

44,256 

65,378 

22.1) 47 
14,010 

137,634 

24.121 
31,017 
19,861 
23,127 
28,(164 
39,675 
36,004 
48,615 

76.917 
138,036 

63,884 

32.277 
12,037 
46,499 
68,166 
60,203 

83.327 
11,695 

138,276 

50,177 

23,298 

314,194 

25,480 

48,374 

22.817 
18,860 
91,568 

38.917 
14,490 

298,103 

67.327 
38,442 
29,902 
48,487 

101,177 

324,410 

26,724 

40,472 

18,749 

26,688 

77.818 
30.067 
30,421 
22,486 
41,732 
63,150 

57.327 

22.710 
94,270 

16.1) 12 
24,643 
31,791 
41,534 
41,326 
64,948 

65.142 
65,593 
37,296 

676,673 

234,891 

112,769 


Pop. 1910 
38,494 
78,466 
18,241 
19,098 
9,179 
28,623 

34.371 
58,547 
26,976 
73,409 
19,282 
37,176 

39.279 
66,525 
24,978 
69,647 
33,484 
24,814 

119,295 

14.331 
37,826 
38,650 
18,797 
23,975 
63,933 
73,312 
10,465 

24.892 
22,089 
36,981 
16,802 
24,398 
12,478 

112,671 

13,948 

25.236 

15,895 

15,741 

16,507 

35.279 
20,926 

3,559 

64,186 

98,915 

44,115 

26,452 

12,516 

4,120 

70,324 

67,730 

62,183 

14,434 

78,800 

31,161 

16,364 

233,650 

11,877 

31,433 

21,262 

15,779 

67,699 

31,297 

11,850 

267,779 

56,482 

34,670 

32,073 

39,437 

82.331 
248,381 

18,659 

21.371 
19,946 
26,908 
36,.346 
17,010 
30,417 
20,081 
16,181 
47,227 
31,229 
14,865 

85.892 
19,363 
19,240 
26.247 
36,099 
30,608 
43,973 
46,941 
17,809 
28,883 

319,198 

223,928 

106,294 


Pop. 1920 

Lynchburg, Va. 30,070 

Lynn, Mass. 99,148 

Macon, Ga. 62,996 

McKeesport, Pa. 46,781 

Madison, Wis. 38,378 

Malden, Mass. 49,103 

Manchester, N.H. .. 78,384 

Manila, P. I. (’19, ’03) 283,613 
Mansfield, Ohio .... 27,824 

Marion, Ind. 23,747 

Marion, Ohio. 27,891 

Medford, Mass. 39,038 

Memphis, Tenn. 162,351 

Meriden, Conn. 29,867 

Meridian, Miss. 23,399 

Miami, Fla. 29,571 

Middletown, Ohio . 23,594 

Milwaukee, Wis.... 457,147 
Minneapolis, Minn., 380,582 

Mobile, Ala. 60,777 

Moline, Ill. 30,734 

Montclair, N. J. 28,810 

Montgomery, Ala... 43,464 

Montpelier, Vt. 7,126 

Mount Vernon, N.Y. 42,726 

Muncie, Ind. 36,524 

Muskegon, Mich.... 36,670 

Muskogee, Okla. 30,277 

Nashua, N.H. 28,379 

Nashville, Tenn. ... 118,342 

Natchez, Miss. 12,608 

New Albany, Ind. . 22,992 

Newark, N.J. 414,524 

Newark, Ohio. 26,718 

New Bedford, Mass. 121,217 
New Britain, Conn. 69,316 
New Brunswick, N.J. 32,779 

Newburgh, N.Y. 30,366 

New Castle, Pa. 44,936 

New Haven, Conn. . 162,537 
New London, Conn. 25,688 
New Orleans, La.... 387,219 

Newport, Ky. 29,317 

Newport, R.I. 30,256 

NewjKut News, Va.. 36,596 

New Rochelle, N.Y. 36,213 

Newton, Mass. 46,054 

New York, N.Y.6,620,048 

Manhattan Boro.. 2,284,103 
Brooklyn “ 2,018,356 

Bronx “ 732,016 

Queens “ 469,042 

Richmond “ 116,531 

Niagara Falls, N.Y.. 60,760 

Norfolk, Va. 115,777 

Norristown, Pa. 32,319 

Norwalk, Conn. 27,743 

Norwich, Conn. 22,304 

Norwood, Ohio .... 24,966 

Oakland, Calif. 216,261 

Oak Park, III. 39,858 

Ogden, Utah. 32,804 

Oklahoma City, Okla. 91,295 

Olympia, Wash. 7,795 

Omaha, Nebr. 191,601 

Orange, N.J. 33,268 

Oshkosh, Wis. 33,162 

Oswego, N.Y. 23,626 

Ottumwa, Iowa_ 23,003 

Paducali, Ky. 24,735 

Parker-sburg, W.Va. 20,060 

Pasadena, Calif. 45,354 

Passaic, N.J. 63,841 

Paterson, N.J. 135,875 

Pawtucket, R.I. 64,248 

Pensacola, Fla. 31,035 

Peoria, Ill. 76,121 

Perth Amboy, N,J, . 41,707 

Petersburg, Va. 31,012 

Philadelphia, Pa,,., 1,823,779 

Phoenix, Ariz. 29,053 

Pierre, S.D. 3,209 

Pine Bluff, Ark. ... 19,280 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 688,343 

Pittsfield, Mass,,,, 41,763 

Plainfield, N,J. 27,700 

Ponce, P.U. 41,661 

Pontiac, Mich. 34,273 

Port Huron, Mich,,, 25,944 

Portland, Maine.,.. 69,272 

Portland, Oregon ,,. 268,288 
Portsmouth, Ohio,,. 33,011 

Portsmouth, Va. 64,387 

Poughkeepsie, N.Y.. 35,000 

Providence, R,I, ... 237,695 


Pop. 1910 
29,494 
89,336 
40,665 
42,694 

26.531 

44.404 
70,063 

219,928 

20,768 

19,359 

18,232 

23,150 

131,106 

27,265 

23,286 

6,471 

13,152 

373,867 

301,408 

61,621 

24,199 

21,560 

38,136 

7,856 

30,919 

24,005 

24,062 

25,278 

26,005 

110,364 

11,791 

20.629 
347,469 

25.404 
96,652 
43,916 
23,388 

27.806 
.36,280 

133,606 

19,659 

339,075 

30,309 

27,149 

20.205 
28,867 

39.806 
4,766,883 
2,331,542 
1,6.34,351 

4.30,980 

284,041 

85,969 

30,445 

67,462 

27,875 

24,211 

20,367 

16,185 

150,174 

19,444 

25,680 

64.205 
6,996 

124,096 

29.630 
33,062 
2.3,.368 
22,012 
22,760 
17,842 
30,291 
64,773 

125,600 

51,622 

22,982 

66,960 

32,121 

24,127 

1,649,008 

11,134 

3,65() 

15,102 

633,905 

32,121 

20,550 

35,027 

14.532 
18,86.3 
68,571 

207,214 

23,481 

33,190 

27,9.36 

224,326 


180 


Pop. 1920 


Pueblo, Colo. 43,060 

Quincy, Ill. 35,978 

Quincy, Mass. 47,876 

Racine, Wis. 58,693 

Raleigh, N.C. 24,418 

Reading, Pa. 107,784 

Reno, Nev. 12,016 

Revere, Mass. 28,823 

Richmond, Ind. 26,765 

Richmond, Va. 171,667 

Roanoke, Va. 60,842 

Rochester, N.Y. 295,760 

Rockford, 111. 66,651 

Rock Island, Ill. 35,177 

Rome, N.Y. 26,341 

Rutland, Vt. 14,964 

Sacramento, Calif... 65,908 

Saginaw, Mich. 61,903 

St. Joseph, Mo. 77,939 

St. Louis, Mo. 772,897 

St. Paul, Minn. 234,698 

Salem, Mass. 42,529 

Salem, Oregon. 17,679 


Salt Lake City, Utah 118,110 


San Antonio, Tex... 161,379 
San Diego, Calif.... 74,683 

San Francisco, Calif. 606,676 

San Jose, Calif. 39,642 

San Juan, P.R. 70,707 

Sandusky, Ohio .... 22,897 

Santa Fe, N. Mex... 7,236 

Savannah, Ga. 83,252 

Schenectady, N.Y... 88,723 

Scranton, Pa. 137,78.3 

Seattle, Wash. 315,312 

Selma, Ala. 16,589 

Sheboygan, Wis. ... 30,955 

Shenandoah, Pa. ... 24,726 

Sheridan, Wyo. 9,176 

Shreveport, La. 43,874 

Sioux City, Iowa ... 71,227 

Sioux Falls, S.D. .. 25,202 

Somerville, Mass. .. 93,091 

South Bend, Ind.... 70,983 

Spartanburg, S.C. .. 22,638 

Spokane, Wash. 104,437 

Springfield, Ill. 59,183 

Springfield, Mass. .. 129,614 

Springfield, Mo. 39,631 

Springfield, Ohio.... 60,840 

Stamford, Conn. 36,096 

Steubenville, Ohio.. 28,508 

Stockton, Calif. 40,296 

Superior, Wis. 39,671 

Syracu.se, N.Y. 171,717 

Tacoma, Wash. 96,965 

Tallahassee, Fla. 6,637 

Tampa, Fla. 61,608 

Taunton, Mass. 37,1.37 

Terre Haute, Ind. . . 66,08.3 

Toledo, Ohio. 243,164 

Topeka, Kans. 50,022 

Trenton, N.J. 119,289 

Trinidad, Colo. 10,906 

Troy, N.Y. 72,013 

Tucson, Ariz. 20,292 

Tulsa, Okla. 72,076 

Utica, N.Y. 94,156 

Vicksburg, Miss. 18,072 

Waco, Tex. .38,500 

Walla Walla, Wash. 15,503 

Waltham, Mass. 30,915 

Warren, Ohio. 27,060 

Washington, D.C. .. 437,671 
Waterbury, Conn.. . 91,715 

Waterloo, Iowa. 36,230 

Watertown, N.Y. .. 31,286 

Waycross, Ga. 18,068 

West Hoboken, N.J. 40,074 
WestNewYork, N.J. 29,920 
Wheeling, W.Va. .. 66,208 

Wichita, Kans. 72,217 

Wichita Falls, Tex.. 40,079 

Wilkes-Barre, Pa... 73,833 

Williamsport, Pa. .. 36,198 

Wilmington, Del. .. 110,168 

Wilmington, N.C... 33,372 

Winona, Minn. 19,14.3 

Winston-Salem, N.C. 48,395 
Woonsocket, R.I. .. 43,496 

Worcester, Mass_ 179,7.54 

Yonkers, N.Y. 100,176 

York, Pa. 47,512 

Youngstown, Ohio.. 132,368 

Zanesville, Ohio..., 29,569 


Pop. 1910 

41.747 
36,587 
32,642 
38,002 

19.218 
96,071 
10,867 

18.219 
22,324 

127,628 

34,874 

218,149 

45,401 

24,335 

20,497 

13,546 

44.696 
50,610 

77.403 
687,029 
214,744 

43.697 
14,094 
92,777 
96,614 
39,578 

416,912 

28,946 

49,000 

19,989 

5,072 

66,064 

72,826 

129,867 

237,194 

13,649 

26,398 

25,774 

8,408 

28,016 

47,828 

14,094 

77.236 

53.684 
17,617 

104,402 

61,678 

88,926 

36,201 

46.921 

25,138 

22,391 

23,253 

40,384 

137,249 

83,743 

6,018 

37,782 

34,269 

68,167 

168,497 

43.684 
96,815 
10,204 

76.813 
13,193 
18,182 
74,419 

20.814 
26,425 
19,364 
27,834 
11,081 

331,069 

73,141 

26,693 

26,730 

14,486 

35.403 
13,560 
41,641 
52,450 

8,200 

67,105 

31,860 

87,411 

25.748 
18,583 
22,700 
38,125 

145,986 

79,803 

44,760 

79,066 

28,026 























































































































































































































LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


To the Teacher.—The following paragraphs contain a review of those 
parts of the text that relate to production and trade, with enough new material 
to make each a complete lesson unit. The Roman numerals refer to lessons, 
the Arabic to paragraphs and pages. The index will be found especially 
helpful in finding material bearing on the lesson. Production and trade 
maps made by the pupil are the best means of teaching these subjects. 
Model maps are theretore given and material from which original maps may 
be made. The lessons provide for a year’s course in commercial geography. 

1. Production,— (Review XV.) What things do all men 
need? How do men secure them? Name some of them that 
we secure by agriculture; such articles are called “agricultural 
products.” Name some articles that we get by mining; they 
are called “ mineral products.” Name some articles that we get 
from forests; these are called “forest products,” When agricul¬ 
tural, mineral, and forest products are made up into new forms 
we call these forms “manufactured” products. Name some of 
them and tell from what they were made. 

Think of all the countries of the world that you have studied; 
visit the great stores of our cities, and you will see how great is 
the number and variety of things that men produce by labor and 
skill. You will also notice that the products of one country are 
often very different from those of another. Name some agricul¬ 
tural products that are not produced in the United States; some 
mineral products; some forest products; some manufactured 
products. Can you explain why each of these is not produced 
in this country ? 

Written Work. —Make a list of twenty-five articles produced in the United 
States; classify as agricultural, mineral, forest, or manufactured product and tell in 
what part of the country each is produced. 

2. Commerce.—It takes many men to produce all the things 
that the world needs. No one man can produce all the things 
that he himself needs, and few men need all the things that 
they themselves can produce. So it happens that men sell the 
part of their own productions that they do not need and buy of 
other men the productions that they do need. This buying and 
selling of products is going on all over the world and it makes 
commerce, or trade. 

Transportation (XLIIIb). The products which a man sells 
must be sent .to places where they are needed. The products 
which he buys must be brought from places where they may be 
had. This carrying of products from one place to another is 
called “ transportation.” 

Transportation is very important because without it there can be no com¬ 
merce. A man would not buy coal in Pennsylvania, cotton in Texas, or iron 
in Alabama, unless he could transport these things to places where they can 
be used or sold. Those who carry goods for us must be paid. You will see 
then that what we pay for transportation makes goods cost more and that 
cheap transportation makes low prices and helps commerce. 

In the parts of this book which we have completed we have 
learned the names and location of the different countries of the 
world ; we have studied their mountains, rivers, and climates , 
we have learned also some things about the people of each 
country, their occupations, and the products of their labor. 

We are now to make a special study of the products that we 
sell at home and to other countries, of those we buy at home 
and from other countries, and of their trade with one another. 
All this makes up the world’s commerce. This study is called 
■“ Commercial Geography.” 

Copyright, 1905, by University 
Copyright, 1921, by Ami 


Written Work.—i. Write a paragraph on methods of transportation in use in 
different countries (see index under transpiortation). 2. Make a list of three classes 
of people engaged in production, three in trade, and three in transportation, and 
describe what each one does. 


North America. 

3 . North America ranks next Europe in the value of its 
productions and commerce. This is partly due to soil, climate, 
navigable rivers and good harbors, and partly to the genius and 
enterprise of its people. 

(Review Map Studies, Physical North America.) Wl.at natural wealth do 
you find in the Pacific Highland 1 In the Laurentian Highland ? Along the 
Atlantic CoastIn the Great Central Plain ? In the Coastal Plains? What 
is the climate of the northern part of the continent ? Of the southern part ? 
Of the central part? Which part is most productive? Give reasons. Study 
the position of the rivers and lakes on physical map of North America. Which 
coast of the continent has the greatest trade? Why? Trace two great 
natural highways by which the products of the Great Central Plain may 
reach the coast. 

The Atlantic Coast has many navigable rivers that lead far into the pro¬ 
ductive parts of the continent; it has better harbors than the western coast 
and is nearer to Europe, the chief market for American products. How would 
each of these facts affect the business and trade ? 

What people live in the northern part of the continent ? What do they 
produce ? What do you think of the value of their commerce ? What people 
live in the southern part ? What goods do they have to sell ? The central 
part has about twenty times as many goods to sell as both the northern 
and southern parts together. How can this be explained ? 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of North America locate the chief natural 
divisions and largest lakes and rivers. 2. On similar map write the leading animal, 
vegetable and mineral productions of the continent. 

4 . The United States : Size, Situation, Resources.— Show 
the advantages of the position of the United States in North Amer¬ 
ica (XXI, 1 - 2 ). What is its size ? What are the chief products of 
each section of the Atlantic Plain (XXI, 7 )? Of the Gulf Plain? 
Of the Mi.ssissippi Valley ? Of the Pacific Highland ? Of the 
Pacific Slope (XXI, ii, 15 , 18 )? Compare the products of the 
Mississippi Valley with those of the Pacific Highland ; compare 
their climates. Turn to physical map of the United States, and 
locate the following: forests, coal, iron, lead, copper, gold, silver, 
corn and wheat, phosphates, fruits, petroleum, cattle, sheep, and 
fish. 

Written Work. — l. On outline map of the United .States locate each of the 
natural divisions and write in each the leading products. 2. Draw the leading lakes 
and rivers. 

5 . Settlement; Government; Civilization.— By what nations 
was our country settled (xxii, 3)? Describe its growth (XXH, 4). 
Population (XXII, 5 . 6). How is it governed (XXHI) ? 

The development of the country has been greatly aided by immigrants 
from foreign countries at the rate of more than a half million a year. About 
one-third of these are skilled laborers—engineers, miners, carpenters, tailors, 
shoemakers, and others. Most of the rest are unskilled laborers. They have 
done much of the work on our railroads, tunnels, canals, and on the build¬ 
ings in our great cities. We have great public school systems,’state agricul¬ 
tural colleges, and many industrial and technical schools, as well as many 
private schools, colleges, and a number of great universities. All of these 
help to make good and useful citizens of our children and of the children of 
these foreigners who come to our land, and to give us our high rank in civili¬ 
zation. 

What are the chief occupations among civilized nations ? Among sav- 

JBLISHING Company, New York. 
icAN Book Company. 






2 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


ages? Among nomadic, or wandering, races? Among half-civilized 
peoples? What are the leading occupations in the United States? How 
does education help a person in his occupation ? Do you think we make 
better goods because of education ? How does education improve our trade 
and ways of transportation ? 

Written Work.—i. Describe four stages of civilization, speaking of occupations, 
and trade, and giving examples of nations in each stage. 2. Write a paragraph 
on Causes of Immigration to the United States (U. S. History). 

6 . The United States; Rank and Industries. —The United 
States produces more salable articles than any other nation. 
Name our six leading industries in order of value (Fig. i). It 
also has more money in its banks than any other nation. This 
money belongs to the people; some of it is loaned to business 
men, and to city and state governments to carry on the business 
.of the country, and to build great public w^orks. The name 
“capital” is given to money which is thus invested in mills, 
factories, buildings, machinery, railroads, and other things which 
are used to produce more wealth. Vast amounts of capital are 
needed to carry on the business of the country, and it is the 
possession of capital that makes London, New York, and such 
great cities the great business centers of the world. 

Eleven-twelfths of our products are consumed at home. The working 
people here live in better houses, eat better food, and wear better clothes 



Fig. I. 


than in any other land. This is because wages are higher; and wages are 
higher because our industries are more profitable than in other countries. 
In shipping and foreign trade we rank lower than Great Britain and Germany, 
but in domestic trade and internal communication we are far in advance of 
them. At present much money and energy is being used to increase our 
merchant marine, as the ships carrying goods to and from our seaports are 
called. Why is this important? In what part of the country are agriculture, 
grazing, mining, manufacturing, and fishing mainly carried on (Review 
XXIV)? How does foreign commerce rank with other industries ? 

Written Work.—Write on any industry named in Fig. i, describing its location 
and reasons therefor. 

7 . Wheat. —Agriculture is really our most important industry 
because it furnishes many raw materials for our manufactures. 
Flour could not be had without wheat, nor cloth without 
cotton, wool or other fiber. Of all our farm products, the 
grains, or “ cereals,” are the most valuable. They are the seeds 
of certain cultivated grasses, growing in all climates, from the 
Equator to the Arctic Circle. Grain, flour, and meal are called, 
in commerce, “ breadstuffs.” Wheat is “ King of the Cereals.” 
It grows best in rich, loamy soil, in a cool, moderately dry 
climate, and requires about three months to ripen. It is called 
“spring” or “ winter ” wheat according as it is planted in the 
spring or fall. In mild, dry climates the seed becomes much 
harder when ripe than in cool, moist climates. The best flour 
is made by mixing “ hard ” and “ soft ” wheat. Macaroni and 


other similar foods are made from “ hard ” wheat. Wheat contains, 
much of a sticky substance called “gluten,” which holds the 
gases that cause bread to “rise”; thus wheat bread can be 
made “light.” The world’s wheat crop is about two bushels 
apiece for the world's people. 

A bushel of wheat will make forty-five pounds of flour. If ten ounces of 
flour make a loaf of bread, how many loaves a year will the United States 



crop make for each person (Fig. 2)? How many will the crop of Great 
Britain make? Which nation can best sell to tlie other? Why might an in¬ 
crease in our population make our export of wheat less? About one-third 
of our wheat crop is exported as grain or flour to Europe. Find what nations 
buy it (Table II). 

Written Work.—i. Write a paragraph about the wheat crop of the world, using 
Figure 2. 2. On an outline map of the United States indicate by color or shading the 
states or parts of states producing wheat. 


8. Corn, or maize, needs five months of warm weather to make 
a good crop. Does it probably grow best north or south of the 
wheat region ? What people first raised corn ? What name did 
they give it? In this country much corn is eaten in the form of 
bread or meal, but it is chiefly used for feeding cattle and hogs. 
Which of the Central States (XXXVl) lead in corn, beef, and 
pork? Thou.sands of cattle are every year driven north from the 
grazing regions to be fattened in the corn belt. In what forms that 
you know do we eat corn ? Cornstarch, glucose (a kind of cheap 
sugar), whiskey, and alcohol are made from corn. What-States 
p 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 

J —I I I, I I-I- 1 I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I 


WORLD’S CORN CROP 
IN MILLION BUSHELS 

ANNUAL AVERAGE CROP FOR FIVE YEARS 
TOTAL AVERAGE ANNUAL CROP 
3,813 MILLION BUSHELS 



would be likely to make these articles? Corn is sown to pro¬ 
duce fodder for milch cows. The stalks are sometimes chopped 
when green and kept fresh by storing them in “ silos,” or air¬ 
tight rooms. The corn thus kept is called “ ensilage.” 

Written Work.—i. Find, by reference to Table VII, what States produce com, 
and on an outline map show the corn-growing region of our country. 2. Write a 
paragraph on the world’s production of corn, using Figure 3. 






























































NORTH AMERICA. 


3 


9 . Other Grains. —Rye is largely used as a food in Europe, 
but in this country chiefly for making whiskey. It grows on 
poorer soil than wheat or corn, and hence is raised in 
districts in the wheat belt where wheat cannot be profitably 
grown. About one-sixth of our small crop is exported to the 
countries of Northern Europe. Find the amount of our rye 
crop (Fig. 35). Hovv does it compare with that of Russia? Of 
Germany? The greater part of our oat crop is fed to horses. 
Trade in oats is slight compared with the immense size of the crop, 
for oats are cheap and bulky to transport. For this reason they 
are grown in countries where they are needed. They grow in a 
colder climate than wheat. The increasing use of oatmeal for 
food has much decreased our export of oats. Barley is used 
mainly in making beer. Our crop is not now used for beer. 
In Northern Europe it is used also for bread and for feeding 
horses. It will grow in a greater variety of soil and climate than 
any other grain. It ripens in a shorter time than even the 
hardiest kind of oats. Hence it can be raised on high moun¬ 



tains, and within the yVrctic region. The malt remaining after 
straining off the beer is fed to cattle. A small part of our barley 
is exported to the beer-making countries of Europe. Rice grows 
best in the warm belt. The United States raises about 350,000 
tons of rice annually, and imports about two-thirds as much from 
Asia. 

Written Work.—l. Find, from Table VII, where oats, rice, barley and rye are 
grown in this country, and print the names of these grains on an outline map. 2. 
Write a paragraph on the world’s production of oats or barley from Figures 4, and 34. 

10. Textile Fibers are those that are used for making cloth. 
Cotton, wool, silk, and flax supply clothing for nearly all man¬ 
kind. Cotton, because it is easily grown and manufactured, is 
cheap, and hence it is more_ used than the other three fibers 
combined. Describe the climate in which cotton is grown; 
the picking and the manufacture of cotton, (XXX, 7). 

The greater part of our cotton is " Upland ” cotton with a fiber about one 
and a half inches long. Describe “Sea Island” cotton (inde.x). Egyptian 
and Peruvian cotton are long staple. What is the Indian cotton (index) ? 
About one-third of our crop is spun and woven at home. The rest goes to 
the manufacturing countries of Europe. Describe our trade in cotton (Tables 
III and IV). What machines are used in cotton manufacture? Why do we 
import cotton ? For delicate fabrics, such as laces and fine muslins, the 
long-fiber cotton is necessary, as it makes a fine, strong thread. Also, 
where great strength is required, as in the canvas webbing for bicycle tires, 
a long and coarse fiber, such as the Peruvian cotton supplies, is best. This 
explains why we import cotton although our own crop is so large. 



PRODUCTION OF COTTON 
PER SQUARE MILE 
!Z 3 1 to 20 Baltt ptr m. 

Over 20 BaUe per sq. m. 


Fig. s- 


Written Work.—i. Mark on an outline map of the United States the cotton¬ 
growing States. 2. From Fig. 8 and from the text book make a list of the cotton¬ 
growing regions and color these regions on a map of the world. 

(Other fibers will be studied in connection with the countries that lead in their 
production.) 

II. Forests and Lumber Products.—The forest regions from 
which most of the lumber of commerce is cut form a great belt 
in the northern half of the North Temperate Zone. Find these 
regions and trace on the physical maps the northern limit of 
trees. The trees of the northern belt are mainly “ soft ” 
woods, such as white pine, fir, spruce, and cedar. They are 
easily worked and much used in building. Further south are 
hardwood trees, such as the oak, birch, walnut, maple and ash. 
Where do we find the cypress, cottonwood, palmetto, and hard 
pine (U. S. ph3^sical map)? In tropical countries are found hard 
“ cabinet ” woods. They are the most valuable, and are used 
for furniture and ornamental purposes. What varieties occur 
j in Mexico? Central America ? Brazil? West Indies (physical 
I maps) ? What peculiar woods are found in Ceylon ? Mada¬ 
gascar ? India? New Zealand? Australia? Japan (physical 
maps) ? 

Many of the greatest forests of the world, such as those of 
equatorial Africa and Siberia are yet little explored. The forests 
of the United States have been wastefully used, and do not 
supply the home demand. From what country do we get lum- 
ber(Table IV) ? Wood is sold in the form of timber (logs), lum¬ 
ber, and lumber products, such as doors, sashes, and other 
i forms used in building, furniture, barrel-staves and heads, wooden- 
ware, and vehicles. 

Ohio and Illinois lead in the making of agricultural imple¬ 
ments because they are near the hardwood region, and in the 
































































4 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


great farming region. What cities are noted for this work 
(Table II)? Lumber, building supplies, barrels and wood-pulp 
are made near the saw-mills on the edge of the forests. Fur¬ 
niture factories have grown up in New York, Philadelphia and 
Chicago because these cities are good markets; those of Grand 
Rapids are due to nearness to hard-woods. 

Written Work.—i. Consult physical map of the United States, and shade on an 
outline map of the United States the forest regions. 2. From Fig. 9 writer a para¬ 
graph on lumber production of the world. 

12. Other Forest Products.—Besides lumber and its manu¬ 
factures there is a vast numberof useful articles derived from the 
forests. The tanning of leather depends upon forest products 
(index, bark, gambier, valonia). About a million tons of news¬ 
paper are made in this country annually from wood-pulp. The 
rubber from the world’s tropical forests is worth hundreds of 
millions of dollars yearly. Drugs, dyewoods, gums, resins, barks, 
and oils are made from forest products. Cork, quinine, gum- 
arabic, gutta-percha, amber, camphor, potash, myrrh, and lacquer 



come from trees. Where is each of these obtained (see index)? 
Give their uses. How are naval stores obtained (XXXI) ? What 
peculiar forest product comes from Louisiana (XXXIV, 3)? (Con¬ 
sult index \inde.T logzvood, indigo, madder and other articles narhed 
above.) Copal, and kauri gum are used in making varnishes. 
Shellac is an important gum brought from India; it dries 
quickly, forming a waterproof coating, and is used to make seal¬ 
ing wax and as a varnish. Gutta-percha is indispensable for 
coating electric cables to be used under water. Rosin is used 
in making varnishes and soaps. What are the uses of tar, pitch 
and turpentine (XXXI)? 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of articles made of rubber. 2. From the phys¬ 
ical maps of the continents make list of twenty-five forest-products, giving sources 
and uses. 

13. Tobacco grows in both cool and hot climates all over the 
world. The United States raises about one half of the world’s 
supply. Where was lobacco first used? Who can tell some¬ 
thing of the early history of the tobacco industry in this coun¬ 
try? The flavor and value of tobacco depends upon the soil 
and climate in which it grows. The Cuban variety is a favorite 
for cigars; Turkish and Egyptian for cigarettes; the “ Perique ” 
of Louisiana for smoking; the fine, large leaf of Connecticut is 
used for cigar wrappers. About one-half of our crop is exported 



in the form of smoking and chewing tobacco to all parts of the 
world. But we buy, chiefly from Cuba and Sumatra, about half 
as much as we sell. The Cuban crop is less than one-tenth of 
ours in pounds, but equal to two-thirds of it in value. , 

Written Work.—i. On an outline map of the United States indicate, by shading, 
the tobacco-growing States. 2. Locate on the same map the leading tobacco-manu¬ 
facturing cities. 

14. Fruits and Vegetables are important articles in both our 
foreign and domestic trade. The Pacific slope has become one of 
the great fruit regions of the world. What are the leading varie¬ 
ties (XLIII, 4) ? What fruits does Florida produce (XXXIII)? 
Where are apples and peaches grown (index)? Early fruits and 
vegetables are raised in vast quantities along the Atlantic and 
Gulf Coasts to supply the large cities. Fast freight lines with 
refrigerator cars distribute the fruits and vegetables of Cali¬ 
fornia and the South to all parts of the country, supplying the 
large cities through the entire year. 

Many small fruits and vegetables are grown under glass during the winter, 
thus maintaining a continuous supply for the city markets. Where are wine 
and raisins produced (index) ? Apples are the only fresh fruit exported by us 
to any extent. Other fruits are preserved by drying and canning, and in this 
form are sent abroad. What is the value of our fruit export (Table 
III)? To what countries is it sent? What fruits do we import? From 
what countries (Table IV) ? Potatoes and onions are the only vegetables im¬ 
ported in large quantities. Where do we obtain them (XLVUI) ? 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of fresh fruits and vegetables seen at a grocery 
store. 2. Make a list of the preserved fruits that you might buy at the grocer’s. 
3. On an outline map of the United States indicate by colors the several fruit-grow¬ 
ing regions. 

15. Stock-Raising.—The raising of the domestic animals—the 
horse, cow, sheep, etc.—is an important industry in many coun¬ 
tries. A mild, dry climate favors especially the raising of cattle 
and sheep as it enables these animals to feed out of doors through 
the winter and save the expense of providing food and shelter. 

The Western Plains of the United States have all these advan¬ 
tages and support many millions of cattle and sheep. The natural 
“buffalo” and “bunch” grasses are nutritious food even when 
dried by the hot summer or buried under the snow. The cattle 
raised in these grazing-regions and fattened in the corn belt are 
the best in the world. Many of them are shipped alive to 
Great Britain and the West Indies, but the larger number are 
sent to the great meat-packing centers. Sheep are mainly raised 
for their wool, but several millions are annually killed for mutton. 







































NORTH AMERICA. 


v5 



CATTLE OF THE 
LEADING COUNTRIES 
IN MILLION HEAD 


on at the rate of a “ hog a minute,” Cattle and sheep are 
handled with equal swiftness. 

The refuse is made into fertilizers; hides are sent to tanneries to be made 
into hair and leather; hoofs furnish gelatine and oil; bones, horns, and tails 
are used. Not a particle goes to waste. 

Cheese and milk factories and creameries are usually small and are 
scattered over the country near railroad stations, where milk can be quickly 
obtained, and the products cheaply shipped. An oil called " oleo ” is made 
from the fat of cattle, and is largely exported to Holland, Belgium, and 
Denmark, where it is made into oleomargarine, a substitute for butter. 

Written Work.—i. Indicate by color on an outline map of the United States 
tile chief stock-raising states. 2. Place on the above map the leading shipping 
points and meat-packing centers (consult index under cattle, sheep, beef, pork, etc.). 


Horses, mules, and milch cows are raised mainly in the rich agri¬ 
cultural states as they need to be kept in barns and fed during 
cold and wet weather. Hogs feed naturally on grass, nuts, and 
acorns, but they must be fattened on corn to make the best pork. 
Much attention is given on stock farms to breeding cattle for 
beef or milk. In the same w'ay horses are bred for speed or 
strength, sheep for mutton or wool, and hogs for pork. The 
finest mutton is produced in England, where stock-raising is most i 
skilfully carried on. ' 

From Table VII find whether the states that lead in corn lead also in hogs, j 
What states lead in horses 1 How do these states rank in other farm pro¬ 
ducts ? What states lead in cattle and sheep 1 What is the climate of these ' 
states? Their rank in other farm products? From Fig. 9 find the great 1 
cattle-raising countries. How do they compare with the Western Plains in j 
climate ? 1 


Written Work.—i. On outline map of the United States show by shading j 
the states leading in cattle. 2. Show those leading in sheep, horses, or hogs. i 

16 . “Provisions” is the commercial name given to mutton, j 
beef, and pork products, butter, cheese, and milk. How do they 
rank in value with our other productions (Table I) ? 

The United States exports twice as much meat as all the rest 
of the world combined. Since the invention of refrigerator cars, 
dressed beef has become an important article of trade. It is 
sent from the slaughter houses of Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, 
and St. Louis to all parts of this country and of Europe. The 
best Argentine beef, also, is sent frozen to Europe, but the 
poorer quality is prepared for sale to tropical countries by 
drying and smoking. We eat most of our mutton, but beef, 
hams, bacon, pork, and lard are exported yearly from this 
country to the value of more than one hundred and fifty million 
dollars. 

Name several cities that are meat-packing centers (Table II). 
In these centers the slaughter houses are near the stockyards where 
the animals are unloaded from the trains. Each set of men does 
only one part of the work. The hog passes rapidly along a carrier, 
and is bled, scalded, scraped, cleaned, cooled, and placed in cars, or 
it is cut into hams, pork, and bacon, each going to a separate room 
to be cured, packed, and shipped. In some cases this work goes 
n 10 20 30 40 50 60 


\J 1 W fcW ww - - 

,,,, 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I 1..J-1-1-1- 1 -1- 

i i \ 


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vn 


Hi 




1 



SWINE OP THE 

LEADING COUNTRIES 

IN MILLION HEAD 

lu 

SIRl A^ANb HUNGARY 

>-■' : V"- , ' j 



17 . Our Mineral Wealth exceeds that of any other country. 
What is our rank in coal, iron, copper, gold, and silver (Figs. 
11-17)? In what section is each of these found (physical map)? 
These minerals have added greatly to our wealth. Coal furnishes 
fuel, and iron machinery for our factories; copper, mercury, tin, and 
lead are used in the arts. Gold and silver give us millions of 
dollars every year for use as money. Tin and lead are largely 
imported. Sulphur, nitrates, and many other chemicals also are 
imported (index). But a long list of minerals, such as clay, 
limestone, cements, fertilizers, such as gypsum, phosphate, stone 
for grinding and polishing, and building stones—from the choic¬ 
est marbles to the hardest granites, are found in abundance. 
What states produce lead? Sulphur? Phosphates? Whence 
do we obtain tin ? Lead? Sulphur? Nitrates (index) ? What 
kinds of building stone can you name? Where is each found 
(index)? What other useful minerals can you name? 

Written Work.— i. On outline map of United .States write in each state its lead¬ 
ing minerals. 2. From Figs. 11-17 writea paragraph comparing the United States 
with other countries as to mineral wealth. 

18 . Iron and Coal.—The presence of iron may be observed in 
many places by the reddish color which it gives to rocks and soil. 
This red substance is o.xide of iron, or “ iron rust.” When rock 
contains 60 % of iron it is called “ ore ” and can be profitably mined. 






























































6 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


The three leading kinds of iron ore are the yellow (limonite), 
the red (hematite), and the black (magnetite). The two 
leading kinds of coal are hard, or anthracite, and soft, 
or bituminous. Anthracite burns with little smoke, and is 
therefore valuable for heating in cities and on railroads. The 
supply of anthracite is comparatively small. It is found chiefly 
in Pennsylvania, though there is a little in Colorado and New 
Mexico. Bituminous coal burns with a flame, giving off much 
smoke and gas. It is used in engines, in gas making, and to 
make coke. Coke is made by heating bituminous coal in ovens 
till the gases and coal tar are largely driven off. The gases 
are used for lighting, and the solid residue is coke. This coke 
is used for smelting. The largest coke ovens in the world are in 
the Connellsville district south of Pittsburg. 

The separation of a metal from the ore by means of heat is called "smelt¬ 
ing.” The richest iron ores in this country are found along the shores of 
Lake Superior, and the best smelting coal is in western Pennsylvania. This 
coal and iron can be most cheaply brought together along the southern 
shore of Lake Erie. The Lake Superior ore is mined in open pits and 
shoveled into self-dumping cars by steam. These cars discharge the ore 
through chutes into the ore-ships which distribute it to the iron manufacturing 
towns along the lakes. The coke and limestone are brought here by rail. 
This convenient location of raw materials has made the region bordering the 
southern shore of Lake Erie the greatest iron and steel manufacturing section 
in the world. The Birmingham district in Alabama also has all the advan¬ 
tages for cheap iron making and ranks next in output to the Lake Erie region. 

Written Work.—From Table VII make a list of the leading states producing 
coal, and the number of tons produced by each. 

19 . Petroleum and Natural Gas are generally found near the 
coal fields. They come from trees and plants that have been 
buried in the earth for ages. The gas is consumed in the neigh¬ 
borhood of the wells, but petroleum in its refined form as kero- 
.sene is used in every part of our country and is one of our five 
great exports. Besides kerosene, over two hundred other prod¬ 
ucts are obtained from petroleum. Gasolene, naphtha, vaseline, 
aniline dyes, drugs, and soap are some of these. 

The crude oil is pumped from the wells through pipe-lines to the sea-board. 
Here are great refineries which separate from the oil naphtha, gasolene, and 



kerosene. What is left is made into vaseline, paraffin, anilines, and other 
“ by-products.” Refined oil, or kerosene, is run into tank-cars and steamers 
and sent to all parts of tlie world. What do you know about oil-wells 
(XXVIII, 6) ? Natural gas is obtained by boring into the earth until the gas is 
found. It is then led through pipes to the cities, where it is used for both 
fuel and lighting. Natural gas forms the best fuel for glass-furnaces, and 
therefore the most of our glass is now made in the gas regions. 

Written Work.—i. Locate on an outline map the petroleum fields of our 
country. 2. Write from Fig. 12 a paragraph on the distribution of petroleum in 
the world. 

20. Copper is, next to iron, the most useful metal. Brass is 
made by melting together copper and zinc. Such a mixture of 


metals is called an “ alloy.” Brass ranks next to iron and steel 
in usefulness. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The chief 
use of copper to-day is as a conductor of electricity. Large 



copper wires carry the current many miles to be used in running 
cars and machinery of every sort. Where is the world’s supply 
of copper obtained (Fig. 13)? What part of the world’s copper 
does the U. S. supply? From what states is copper obtained 
(Table VII)? The Lake Superior region, Arizona, and Montana 
yield about three-fourths of our copper. The veins in one Montana 
mine, which run through solid granite, are ten feet thick. In 
Michigan, pure copper is found in masses weighing from two 
hundred to six hundred tons. These must be broken up with 
hammer and chisel before they can be raised to the surface. 
The United States, owing to superior methods of smelting and 
refining copper, finds it profitable to import ores from Canada, 
Mexico and Japan, and to export the refined metal in bars. 
About half our refined copper is exported to Europe, chiefly 
through New York and Baltimore, because large refineries are 
near those cities. 

For what is brass used ? Can you mention anything made of bronze ? 
Waterbury and Bridgeport, Conn., lead in the manufacture of brassware. 
Name some forms of electrical apparatus using copper wire. Name other 
uses of copper. 

Written Work.—Write on outline map the copper-mining, smelting, and manu¬ 
facturing centers of the United States. 

21. Gold and Silver are called the “ precious metals,” although 
they are not as expensive as some metals which are rarer. They 
are of great importance to the world because of their use as 
money. Money is of great importance in carrying on the 
business of a country as it is used to measure the value of all 
goods that are bought and sold. Just as we want out* pound 
weight and our gallon measure to be always the same, so w>e 
w’ant our measure of value to be always the same. The standard 
of value in the United States is the gold dollar. It contains 
about 25 grains of gold go% pure. Gold is the standard of 
value in most of the great commercial countries. The yield 
of gold is very regular. If it were sometimes found in 
vast quantities, and again in very small amounts, it would 
be more expensive at one time than another. This would 
make it poor material for money. Both gold and silver have 
been used as money from the earliest times. Gold is not found 






































NORTH AMERICA. 


7 


combined with other substances in an ore. It is found as a pure 
metal in the sandy beds of brooks and rivers, in banks of sand 
and gravel, and in quartz rock obtained from mines. It is ob¬ 
tained from sand and gravel by washing out in a pan. This is 
called “placer-mining.” Hard banks of gravel are broken down 
by powerful streams of water. This is called “ hydraulic mining” 
(XLI). The quartz rock is ground-up in powerful mills. Gold 



Fig. 14. 


is extracted from gravel and ground-up rock by washing or by 
dissolving in mercury or cyanide of potassium. 


The rock and gravel is washed down through long chutes with cross-pieces 
or " riffles,” at the bottom holding mercury. The heavy grains of gold drop 
into the mercury and are dissolved. The mercury is separated from the 
gold by heat which drives it off in the form of vapor, leaving the gold behind. 


Silver is found as an ore mixed with lead, copper, and 
sulphur. The ore is roasted, to drive off the sulphur, and then 


0 20 40 60 80 

1 , 1,1 I j I I I 


too 120 

I, I I 1 


140 160 180 

J lJ I I I 




WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF 
GOLD, 1914 
IN MILLION DOLLARS 

TOTAL PKODUCTION $.66,000,000 


NTRIES 


Fig. 15. 


in the United States (index and Table VII). 2 . 
distribution of gold and silver, using Figures 14 and 15. 


ground to powder and 
mixed with quicksilver. 
The quicksilverdissolves 
the silver, forming a soft 
mixture, which, when 
again heated,loses the 
quicksilver as vapor, 
the silver remaining be¬ 
hind. Name the chief 
uses of silver and gold in 
the manufacturing arts. 
What common articles 
are made of silver? 

Written Work.—i. Locate, 
on an outline map, the States 
of gold and silver production 
Write a paragraph upon the world’s 


22. Other Minerals .—Aluminium is obtained from clay and 
is the most abundant metal. It is light, strong, and a good carrier 
of electricity, but is expensive to manufacture. It is used for 
many purposes, but principally where combined strength and light¬ 
ness are required. Manganese and nickel are often used to make 
very hard steel. For what else is nickel used? Where is zinc 
obtained (index) ? Did you ever see any ? Zinc and lead are 
both used in manufacturing paint. Give other uses of lead ? What 
States produce it (index) ? Sail is a most important mineral. 
What is its chief use? It is also used to preserve meat and fish, 
and in making soda and glass. Where is salt produced (index)? 
Claj is used in making bricks, tiles, drain pipe, stoneware and 


terra cotta. It has many other uses. What states lead in the 
pottery industry (index)? What kinds of building stone can you 
name ? Where is each obtained (index) ? Cement when mixed 
with water hardens to stone, which dampness cannot penetrate. 
The largest Portland cement works are in eastern Pennsylvania 
and northern Indiana. 

Portland cement is made by grinding a natural rock with lime. It is used 
for making sidewalks, artificial stone, and for the foundations of buildings. 
The name comes from the resemblance in color to the stone from the Isle of 
Portland, England. 

Graphite is a form of carbon. Where found and for what used ? Phos¬ 
phate, gypsum, and nitrate of soda are used as fertilizers. Describe mercury 
and tell some of its uses. Nearly all the world’s mercury comes from 
Almaden, Spain, and from New Almaden, California. What is slate and 
where found ? Name its uses. Platinum is a metal more valuable than 
gold. It is used in making vessels for handling certain acids which would 
corrode other metals and for delicate electric connections. 

Written Work.—l. On an outline map of the United States locate each of the 
minerals named above. 2. Choose some metal and write an account of where it is 
found, things made of it, and their uses. 

23. Manufactures in the United States.—Our manufac¬ 
tures exceed in value those of any other country. Name some 
of the materials which come from our fields, pastures, and mines, 
which we manufacture, or change into othef forms, by the use 
of machinery. These are called “raw materials.” In their 
altered forms they are called “manufactured products.” Where 
is manufacturing chiefly carried on (XXIV)? What makes New 



Fig, x6. 


England a manufacturing region (XXV) ? What helps to make 
the Middle Atlantic States a manufacturing region (XXVIII)? 
What advantages have the Central States for commerce 
(XXXVI)? Why has agriculture heretofore predominated in the 
Southern States? Why is manufacturing now increasing there 
(XXX, 7)? What occupations exceed manufacturing in the 
Rocky Mountain and Pacific States? What natural conditions 
cause this (XLII) ? 

Why are iron and steel made in western Pennsylvania (i8*) ? On the 
same principle explain the making of furniture in Michigan, turpentine in 
Georgia, leather in Wisconsin, meat products in Illinois, steel in Ala¬ 
bama, and cotton goods in South Carolina. Find some other manufacturing 
industries established near the source of raw material. On the other hand, 
the location of a factory may be due to convenience of power. Explain the 
early establishment in New England of factories using Southern cotton ; name 
cities of New England built near sources of water-power (XXV) ? An industry 
* Figures in heavy type refer to paragraphs in these lessons. 
































































8 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


once established in a place may remain after the cause of its establishment 
has ceased to exist. There are factories in New England run by coal brought 
from Pennsylvania that were established because of water-power now no 
longer used. Agricultural implements are made in Illinois, Ohio and Indi¬ 
ana, chiefly because the tnarket is near. Sugar and petroleum are refined 
in New York because they can be most easily brought there. Many industries 
may be established as well in one place as another. Thus Paterson in New 
Jersey leads in silk and in locomotives, Ansonia in clocks, and Brockton in 
shoes, because the energy and skill of certain men have built up these in¬ 
dustries. The building of a railroad may develop industries along its route. 
Many a little station starts its creamery or canning factory because transpor¬ 
tation is swift and cheap, and milk and fruit easy to obtain. 

Written Work.—l. Write a paragraph on uses of steel. 2. Make a list of all 
the circumstances affecting the location of manufacturing towns. 

The needs of a manufacturing nation are; a, raw materials; 

waterpower or fuel; c, good facilities for transportation; and 
d, a market for the goods made. Over 96 per cent, of our 
manufactured goods are used at home. This shows the rapid 
development of our country and the high state of civilization 
and intelligence of our people. American education, intelligence, 
and inventive genius have caused American machinery and 
labor-saving devices to be the best in the world. For these 
reasons, we are able to produce a greater variety of manufactured 
goods, and at a less cost, than most countries. The following 
will give an idea of the immense value of our manufactures. 


TABLE 1 


Our Twenty Chief Products or Manufacture and Approximate Value in 

1Q14. 


Packed Meats. 

Iron and Steel. 

Flour and Meal. 

Castings and Machinery 

Printed Matter. 

Cars. 

Lumber and Timber.. . . 

Cotton Goods. 

Automobiles. 

Boots and Shoes. 

Bakery Products. 

Clothing, Women’s. 

Clothing, Men’s. 

Copper. 

Refined Petroleum. 

Woolen Goods.. 

Leather. 

Tobacco Manufactures., 
Electrical Apparatus. .. . 
Paper and WockI Pulp. . 
Other Manufactures .. .. 


$1,651,965,000 
1,236,319,000 
877,680,000 
866,445,000 
810,506,000 
757,887,000 
715,310,000 
676,569,000 
503,230,000 
501,760,000 
491,893,000 
4 73,888,000 
458,211,000 
444,022,000 
396,361,000 
379,448,000 
367,201,000 
365,933,000 
335,170,000 
332,147,000 
11,604 489.000 


Total Manufactures. $24,246,434,000 

Cost of Raw Materials. 14,368,088,000 

Value added by Manufacture. 9,878,346,000 


What are our two chief industries } What is the value of both } 
What does this show about our industrial rank.? Why is the third 
so great } Account for the fifth. The sixth. The eighth. Give 
reasons for the ninth. How are the second and fourth related.^ 
What is the total value of all our manufactures? How much 
value has been added by labor to the raw materials ? 

Written Work.—i. Write on the chief manufacturing nations of the world, 
using Fig. 19, gpving rank of the United States, and compare the value of our man¬ 
ufactures with that ' f other leading countries. 2. Make a list of some great inventions 
that have aided our manufactures. 

24 . Iron and Steel. — The extent to which iron and steel are 
used measures the rank of a country in manufactures, commerce. 


I 


and civilization. Compare Figures 17 and 19 and show how they 
agree with this statement. The latter half of the 19th century 
is sometimes called the “ age of steel,” because during that time 
steel began to take the place of wood and iron wherever strength 
and durability were required, just as we call the beginning of the 
20th century the “ age of electricity.” 


What is the rank of the iron and steel industries of this country With 
machinery and foundry products, the value of this branch is nearly one- 
sixth of the total value of all our manufactures (see Table I). About one-tenth 



WORLD’S PRODltTION OF 

^TAUSTRIA AND HUNGARY PIG IRON, 1913 

^OBELGIUM 
I^NADA 

* I 

ISWEDEN 


IN MILLION LONG TONS 
TOT.^L PRODUCTION 78,000.000 LONG TONS 




OTHER COUNTRIES 


Fig. 17. 


of this finds its way to foreign countries. One-half of these exports consists of 
electrical and sewing machines, pumping and mining machinery, engines, 
boilers, and printing presses. Other iron and steel exports are locks, hinges 
and other builders’ hardware, tools, wire, and fire-arms. Steel ships, armor 
plate and cannon are of great importance (index). About nine-tenths of 
our iron and steel goods are used at home. This shows that our industries 
are developing rapidly and that our domestic trade is vastly larger than our 
foreign trade. Besides the goods mentioned as exports, we use much steel 
in rails for our railroads and in frames for the thousands of steel buildings 
erected every year in our cities. Make a list of other uses of steel. 

The difference in hardness between iron and steel is due to the 
amount of carbon contained. Carbon was formerly removed 
from iron by very laborious methods, but this is now done 
quickly and easily by the Bessemer process. Melted iron and 
ores containing metals which will harden the iron, are put 
into a vessel with small holes in the bottom through which a 
blast of air is blown. This blast of air burns out the carbon in 
the melted iron, and thus changes it into steel. 

The vessel, or “ crucible, ” is then tilted by means of pivots let into the 
sides, on which it is suspended, and the melted steel is run into moulds of 
any desired pattern. Much of it goes in the form of bars and plates to the 
rolling-mills where heavy machinery rolls it into rails, armor plates, sheets, 
and various other forms for immediate use, or for further manufacture. 

25 . Textile Goods. —The word “textile” includes all fibers 
that can be made into cloth. Name the chief animal fibers; 
vegetable fibers. Asbestos is sometimes called “ mineral wool ” 
because it can be made into cloth. Cloth-making is a lead¬ 
ing occupation in all parts of the world. Name some kinds of 
covering for the body used by different races. In what climate 
is fur used ? Wool ? Silk ? Cotton ? Grass and straw are 
often used by the people of China and Japan. 

Cloth-making by machinery began in England about the time of the 
American Revolution and was soon afterwards introduced into America 
by Samuel Slater. Account for its growth in New England ; in the South. 
Where are the chief centers of cotton manufacture (index) ? Describe four 












































NORTH AMERICA. 


9 


steps in cloth-making. Name some varieties of cotton goods. What are 
“prints?” “Ginghams?” Laces, embroideries, and other trimmings are 
the most expensive form of cotton goods. Where are our silk and wool 
obtained (Table IV). Where do we get our linen goods? What cities lead 
in the manufacture of silks and woolens (Table II) ? Cotton, linen, wool, 
and silk are mixed together in the making of some cloths, cotton being used 
with the more expensive fibers to lessen the cost of the product. What 



ports ship most of our cotton ? What reason can you suggest for this ? 
Find out from Table III the value of our cotton export. For what are the 
seeds of the cotton-plant used (XXX, 7) ? 

Written Work.—i. Turn to Tables III and IV and compare our exports of raw 
materials and cloth with the imports. 2. On outline map of the United States indi¬ 
cate by color the States producing cotton and wool. 


26 . Clothing for men, women, and children is one of our 1 
largest factory products. What is its value (Table I)? Over! 
two-thirds of all the clothing worn in this country is factory j 
made. Standard patterns of all sizes are made, and thet:loth is 
cut and sewed by machinery. The large cities are the centers of j 
this work. The clothing is sometimes made in factories, but 
much of it is done by men, women, and children in their homes. 
They are paid by the “ piece,” and often receive very low wages. 
New York stands first in this business. What six cities rank 
next (Table II)? These large cities are wholesale centers to 
which merchants from smaller towns come to buy clothing. 
This explains why clothing is manufactured in large cities. In 
your city, which is cheaper, “ready-made,” or “tailor-made” 
garments? Why ? The cheaper grades of cloth from our home 
factories are mainly used for “ ready-made ” clothing, while the 
more expensive goods brought from France and Great Britain, on 
which there is a high rate of duty, are used in work made to 
order. 

Not only suits, overcoats, and cloaks are now made in factories, but under¬ 
wear, collars, cuffs, neckties, hosiery, and every kind of knit goods are thus 
made. Can you tell why the factory process makes goods cheaper ? How j 
does the quality compare with that of home-made and tailor-made garments ? 

Written Work.—A truck being loaded with rolls of cloth is.seen in front of a 
wholesale store ; farther on a woman is seen carrying upon her head a great 
bundle of partly made garments. Write what is suggested to you by this. 


27 . Flour, meal, and bakery products.— What are the 
cereals (7)? Where are they grown ( 7 - 9 ) ? What is the value 
of wheat for bread ( 7 ) ? Why is not flour among the manufac¬ 
tures of New England (XXVII. 8 )? In what part of the coun¬ 
try do you think most of our flour is made? Many country 
places have mills where wheat, corn, and oats are ground between 
bier stones which are made to revolve by water-power, but most 
of'our flour is made in enormous mills near the wheat regions, 
where the grain is crushed by a series of hardened steel rollers. 
What city leads in the manufacture of flour (Table II). 


Other milling towns are located along the great lakes and canals. 
Why is this? What do we receive for the breadstuffs sent 
abroad? What countries purchase breadstuffs of us? Which 
of our ports ship flour abroad (Table III)? 

In most American cities, and even in small villages, the people depend 
largely upon local bakeries to supply them with bread, pies, and cakes. 
“ Crackers ” or “biscuits” of many varieties forma considerable article of 
domestic commerce. In the largest bakeries the baking is done in enormous 
rotary ovens revolving slowly in heated chambers. Every revolution of the 
oven turns out hundreds of loaves or pies. The annual product of these 
bakeries is nearly two hundred million dollars. In the country, baking is 
almost entirely done in the home. 

Written Work. —l. On your outline map of the United States showing the 
wheat regions, locate the chief cities engaged in making flour (index under “ flour”). 
2 . Children who live near a bakery write on “ What I Saw in a Bakery.” 

28 . Leather. —From what is leather made? The skins of the 
larger full-grown animals are called “ hides.” What part of our 
country supplies hides? From what foreign countries do we 
obtain them (Table IV)? The process of making leather from 
skins is called “ tanning.” This requires large quantities of oak 
and hemlock bark. These barks contain a substance called “ tan¬ 
nin,” which hardens the hide, and prevents it from putrefying. 
Most of the bark used is from our own forests, but there are 
also imported forest products used in leather-making. When 
the New England forests decreased, the tanneries of the country 
moved southward. Recently a process of tanning, called the 
“ chrome ” process, has been invented which dispenses with the 
use of bark and vegetable materials. The finer and softer kinds 
of leather are made by this process. “ Morocco ” and “ Russian ” 
leathers are fine varieties used in book-binding. The French 
make the finest leather for gloves and shoes. They also excel 
in making “ patent ” leather, which is ordinary leather coated 
with a glossy, waterproof lacquer. 

The fur, wool, and hair obtained from the skins have important uses. The 
hair is mixed with mortar to give it toughness; the fur is used in making hats, 
and the wool for clothing. Some skins valuable chiefly for their fur are 
called “ fur skins.” They are tanned here and then sent to London and 
Leipsic to be dyed and prepared for making into " furs” for winter use. Our 
imports of hides and skins and our export of leather have doubled within a 
few years. 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of articles made of leather. 2. From Tables 
III and IV write a paragraph on our trade in hides and leather. 3. On map of 
the world color the countries producing leather (see index under leather). 


29 . Other Manufacturing Industries besides those we have 
studied are of great importance. More money is spent for 
newspapers, magazines, and books each year in the United States 
than for clothing or boots and shoes. What places are noted for 
each of these articles (index) ? How many things can you name 
that are made of clay f Bricks are made in all parts of the country, 
but New Jersey and Ohio are the leading states in the pottery 
industries. Trenton and Perth Amboy have terra-cotta works. 
East Liverpool and Cincinnati, Ohio, also make fine ware. “Chem¬ 
icals" is the name given to a large class of products. Among them 
are borax, alum, potash, fertilizers, soda, paints, dyes, medicines, 
oils, extracts, alcohol, and hundreds of similar articles of less im¬ 
portance. Find the value of our trade in chemicals (Tables III 
and IV). What things are made of paper? How do paper goods 
rank among our manufactures (Table I) ? Of what raw material 
is newspaper made (index) ? 















10 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


What cities make jewelry? What of our trade in jewelry and 
precious stones? Glass-making is also a leading industry in 
several states (19). What articles, made of glass, are most largely 
used ? The finest glass, rolled into plates, is called “ plate glass.” 

All the above are large industries worth many millions of dollars annually. 
When we think that nearly everything we use is a factory product, we realize 
the immense extent of our manufactures. Every button, pin, needle, pen. 


1 f , 

23^56789 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

<?. h ’ 


1 1 1 11 

ill 

1 

■ 

_ ; 

UNITE'D STATES I860 

J U_n 






FOUR LEADING COUNTRIES 
IN 1860 AND 1900, 

[IN THOUSAND MILLION DOLLARS! 


Pig. 19. 


pencil, knife, and the many little conveniences of every-day use was made in 
a shop with millions of others of the same sort. Every industry gives 
employment to many hands, nearly 7,000,000 workmen being wage-earners 
in our factories. 

Written Work.—l. If you have made a visit to some factory, describe what you 
saw. 2. Manufacturing means strictly “ making by hand,” but now most manu¬ 
facturing is done by machinery. Write an account of some “ hand” manufacturing 
that you have seen. 

30. The Government’s Relation to Commerce.—In all coun¬ 
tries commerce is carried on according to regulations made by 
the government. 

Our government protects our ships, our merchants, and other 
citizens in all parts of the world. Our navy is divided into 
squadrons stationed in various parts of the world, so that a ship 
can be sent to any place in case of trouble. Do you remember 
a case in which our navy used force to protect our trade? We 
have an officer called a “consul” in each important city of the 
leading countries. It is his duty to watch over our interests and 
the interests of our citizens in those countries, and to secure 
information that may help our trade. 

The government also dredges out harbors, grants land to rail¬ 
road companies, helps build canals, improves river navigation, 
keeps lighthouses along the coast, marks channels with buoys, 
and pays steamship lines to carry the mail. When canals and 
railroads are within the boundaries of any State, the State con¬ 
trols them, but when they lead from one State to another they 
are under the control of Congress. The government furnishes 
information to merchants concerning crops, markets, and prices 
in all parts of the world. This information is published and sent 
free to those who ask for it. Daily weather reports also are 
issued, and storm signals displayed, so that sailors and farmers 
may be warned of coming storms. 

Written Work.—Make a list of the various duties of the government toward 
commerce and show the advantage of each. 


31. Our Domestic Trade is about twelve times as great as 
our foreign trade. Of the vast products of our fields and fac¬ 
tories amounting to eighteen billions of dollars, nine-tenths is 
used by our own people. The “ moving” of our crops and the 
distribution of our varied productions requires vast systems of 
transportation and gives employment to millions of men. What 
causes can you give for this domestic trade? Where do the 
people of the great manufacturing cities of the East obtain flour 
and meat? Where do they get cotton? Hides? Lumber? 
Wool? Naval stores? What part of the country supplies the 
West and South with manufactures? With timber? In general, 
which way do raw materials move? Food products? Manu¬ 
factured goods? What trade is carried on between country and 
city ? Between large cities and small towns and villages ? Be¬ 
tween the coast and the interior? What do the farmers of 
Kansas and Iowa buy in exchange for their wheat and com? 
Where do these things come from? 

If we think how many things are required to supply all our needs, and that 
most of them are made in comparatively few places, and often in a single 
city, we shall see how far goods must be carried to reach all the people 
who need them. We shall see also how many shops, stores, and markets are 
needed to sell these goods, and what a vast number of people may find 
employment as merchants, clerks, messengers, and carriers. All this helps 
us to understand the great volume and importance of our domestic trade. 

Written Work’.—i. Describe the trade and transportation necessary to provide 
us with a breakfast of oatmeal and milk, coffee, rolls and eggs. 2. Write what you 
know of the business of a grocery store. 3. Of a meat market. 

31. Inland Transportation.—What are the uses of roads? . 
Which roads are most used by the farmer? We have about ' 
3,000,000 miles of wagon roads and 240,000 miles of railroads. •: 
Show the importance of each kind. Describe our great water- ' 
ways (XXIV, 7). Name three rivers belonging to the Mississippi 
system, and the chief cities on their banks. Name ten rivers of . 
the Atlantic Slope, and their chief cities; the rivers and cities 
of the Pacific Slope. Why do we usually find a city located 
at the mouth and one at the head of navigation of a river 
(XLIIIb). How far is the Mississippi navigable (Map Studies, 
Phys. U. S.) ? The rivers of the Atlantic Slope? The steam. 






















































NORTH AMERICA. 


II 


boats plying on the rivers bring farm and garden produce to the 
cities and carry away goods sold to the merchants of the 
smaller inland towns. 

Locate and give the connections and commercial uses of the Erie Barge Canal; 
the Sault Ste. Marie; the Welland Canal; the Cape Cod Canal; the canal con¬ 
necting the Hudson River and Lake Champlain; Lake Erie and the Ohio River; the 
canal at the Falls of the Ohio (XXXVII, 2); the canal connecting Lake Michigan 
and the Illinois River. 

(Railroad lines, Map of Transportation and Travel.) What 
roads go from New York through Albany to Buffalo? These 
roads have parallel lines on both sides of the Hudson, and across 
the State. What road goes to Buffalo through northern Penn¬ 
sylvania, and southern New York? Find the Delaware and 
Hudson ; the New York, New Haven and Hartford ; the Central 
Vermont; the Boston and Maine. This road connects with 
Troy, New York, and has a network of tracks from central 
Massachusetts northward. Find the Grand Trunk branch from 
Portland to Montreal. When the St. Lawrence is frozen, Cana¬ 
dian trade is carried over this road. New York is a great center 
for the transfer of freight and passengers. Goods brought from 
the northeast and northwest by rail, coasting vessel, or canal, are 
there transferred to vessels going to foreign countries, and to 
cities along our coast. Some goods are ferried to the Jersey 
shore for reshipment by rail, while freight and passenger trains are 
ferried around Manhattan to and from the Jersey coast. This con¬ 
vergence of many lines of transportation makes New York City 
probably the greatest distributing center of the world. 

Follow the Erie road from New York to Chicago. Trace and name the 
roads from Chicago to Buffalo ; to Quebec ; to Cincinnati; to New Orleans ; 
to St. Louis and Omaha ; to El Paso, in Texas ; to Denver ; to Duluth. Trace 
and name the roads from Philadelphia to New York, Pittsburgh, and Wash¬ 
ington ; from Baltimore to Cincinnati; Richmond to Cincinnati. Trace the 
routes of the Southern, the Atlantic Coast and the Seaboard Air Lines. 
What cities are connected by the Central of Georgia ? Follow the Louisville 
and Nashville from New Orleans and Mobile to St. Louis; from Memphis 
to Cincinnati. By what great roads might you travel from New Orleans to 
San Francisco ? From San Francisco to Chicago? From Portland, Ore., 
to Duluth ? 

Written Work.—i. Insert on outline map of the United States the chief 
railroad centers and termini of canals. 2. Describe the trade carried in each direc¬ 
tion on railroad lines between Chicago and New York. 

32 . Coasting Steamship Lines.— (Map of Travel and Trans¬ 
portation). A va.st number of steam and sailing vessels, perhaps 
40,000 in all, are engaged in carrying goods from port to port 
along our coasts and between home and foreign ports. Our 
coasting trade is by law entirely carried on by American vessels, 
but five-sixths of our foreign trade is carried by the ships of 
Great Britain, Germany, Holland, and other nations. New York 
is the chief receiving and distributing point for the cotton and 
lumber of the South, the grain, cattle, and wheat of the West, 
the manufactures of the North and East, and of our imports from 
foreign countries. What six ports rank next in order (Table V) ? 

From what you have learned of the productions and trade of the different 
sections of our country, name some goods which might be carried each way 
by the following lines of steamships on trips named : 

Mallory : Galveston, Mobile, and Brunswick, Ga., to New York. Merch¬ 
ants and Miners: Savannah to Baltimore and Philadelphia; New York, 
Washington, and Baltimore to Boston. Southern Pacific: New Orleans to 
New York ; New York to San Francisco and Portland, Me. Clyde: Charles¬ 
ton and Jacksonville to New York. Fall River and other Sound Lines: 
New York to Boston, Providence, and New England points. Pacific Coast 


Line : Tacoma to San Francisco, Los Angeles and San Diego. Alaska Steam¬ 
ship Co.: Seattle to Dawson and Juneau. Old Dominion: Norfolk and 
Baltimore to New York. Eastern Steamship Co.: Boston to Eastport and 
Portland. About too transportation lines on the great lakes, connecting 
Duluth, Superior, Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo, Cleveland, Milwaukee, and other 
ports. 

Almost all passengers and much freight going from Atlantic 
to Pacific ports long crossed the Isthmus of Panama by rail. 
Much heavy freight went in large ships around Cape Horn. 
The opening of the Panama Canal means the saving of all 
this time and expense. What do you know of this canal (see 
Recent Geographical Events)? Besides our steamship coast 
trade, we have a large number of sailing vessels, which carry such 
heavy cargoes as coal, lumber, brick and stone, naval stores, and 
ice. Our fisheries also employ many boats. 

Written Work.—i. On a map of the United States locate the leading seaports 
and draw and name the steamship lines connecting them. 

33 . Ocean Steamship Lines.—An important part of our 
foreign trade is with the West Indies, and the ports of the Gulf 
of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. This trade is about half carried 
by our own ships, which make several trips a month. 

From Tables III and IV and Fig. 29, find out what goods might be car¬ 
ried each way by the following lines; Ward: New York to Havana. 
Plant: Boston to Halifax. United Fruit Company: Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Mobile, and New Orleans to most points in Central 
America, Columbia and the West Indies. Munson : New York, New 
Orleans, and Mobile to Havana. Lamport &* Holt : New York to Rio, 
Buenos Aires and Pernambuco. Red " D" : New York to Porto Rico and 
Porto Cabello. Cuba Mail : New York to Tampico, Vera Cruz, and Progreso. 
Panama Railroad Line : New York to Colon. 



There is a much larger number of steamships engaged in the 
trans-oceanic trade; but owing to the greater length of voyage, 
only one-third as many trips can be made as by a “ coaster.” 
Many sailing vessels also make long voyages from American 
ports to Asia, Africa, and Australia. A large part of our trade is 
carried by “tramp steamers.” They do not run regularly be¬ 
tween the same ports, but carry cargoes to any part of the world. 

On the trade chart of the World trace the course of the following steam¬ 
ship lines and tell, from Tables III and IV, what goods might be carried each 
way on any given voyage : Cunard : New York and Boston to Liverpool. 
White Star: Boston, New York, New Orleans, and Philadelphia to Liverpool 
and London. North-German Lloyd: New Orleans, Baltimore, New York, 
and Galveston to Plymouth, Cherbourg, Southampton, Bremen, and Naples. 
Hamburg-American : New York and Philadelphia to Hamburg. Elder- 























12 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Demster and Horsley Lines: Mobile lo Liverpool and Havre. Red Star : 
New Orleans and New York to Antwerp. Great Horther 7 i: Tacoma and 
Seattle to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Manila. Oriental: San Francisco to 
Honolulu and Hongkong. Strachan: Brunswick, Ga., to London, Liverpooh, 
Glasgow, Havre, Hamburg, and Bremen. Americati and Atistrahan : New 
York to Melbourne. American-Indian : New York to Calcutta. 

Written Work. —On Map of the World locate the ports named above, and draw 
the steamship lines between New York and these ports. 

34 . Our Foreign Trade is increasing rapidly as the result of 
large crops and cheap forms of transportation (XXIV and 
XLIIIb). The export of our manufactures has increased on 
account of their cheapness and e.xcellence, which have caused a 
demand for them all over the world. 

The sum of the exports and imports of a country is called its "total com¬ 
merce." The difference between the exports and the imports is called the 
" balance of trade.” When our exports are greater than our imports, the 



Fig. 33. 

balance of trade is said to be ‘ in our favor’ because then we get more money 
than we spend; but if our imports are greater, it is “against us.” From 
Tables III, IV, find our trade balance for 1904. Is it against us or in our 
favor? Trade balances must be paid in cash by the nation against which 
they stand. No nation can afford to buy more than it sells unless it has 
other sources of income. Out of our large trade balance we pay over 
$100,000,000 annually to foreign ship owners for carrying our goods. We 
also pay many millions to foreigners who own stocks and other property in 
our country. If a nation should continue for many years to buy more than it 
sold, with no income from other sources, it would become bankrupt. 

Besides cheap transportation there are two other things which 
may increase or reduce our foreign trade. These are the tariff 
laws and special trade agreements with foreign nations. 

A tariff is a tax laid by the government upon imports. If this tax is high 
enough it may keep out imports altogether. The man who brings the goods 
in pays this duty, and adds it to the price of the goods when he sells them. 
At present our government lays a tariff on many of the things which we pro¬ 
duce at home. This is to keep up the price of these goods and thus “pro¬ 
tect” the home producer from being “undersold” by foreigners. Therefore 
this is called a -protective tariff.” A tariff laid solely for the purpose of 
raising money for the use of the government is called a “tariff for revenue 
only.” A country that levies no tax at.all on imports is said to have “free 
trade.” Many British ports, as Hongkong and Singapore, have entire free 
trade, while Great Britain and Holland are practically free trade countries, 
since a duty is laid on only a few articles for the sake of revenue. 

Written Work. —From Fig. 22 write a paragraph on the commerce of the 
leading countries, giving, if possible, a reason for the balance of trade in each country. 

35 . Cities of New England. —Many things have caused vil¬ 
lages, towns, and cities to grow up. Ferries, waterfalls, the 
crossing of lines of travel and trade, harbors, the mouths of rivers, 
sources of natural wealth, and places noted for healthful and 
beautiful surroundings, all offer opportunities for business and 


trade. Can you name some towns that owe their growth to one 
or more of these conditions? 

Many small towns owe their prosperity to a single industry, but large cities 
usually have many industries which depend upon one another. Thus, textile 
factories support machine and repair shops and dyeing and bleaching establish¬ 
ments ; blast furnaces give rise to steel mills, foundries, and hardware factories; 
while everywhere the grocer, butcher, tailor, shoemaker, and various trades¬ 
men, supplying the needs of everyday life, have numerous shops and stores. 

What advantages have the New England States for manufac¬ 
ture and trade (XXV, 2, 4, 6) ? The New England cities had 
an early start in manufacturing, and the capital and skill ac¬ 
quired have enabled their wares to undersell the rest of the world. 

What is the chief port of entry for New England (Table V)? What are the 
chief manufacturing cities (XXV-VI and Table II) ? What do you know of 
the manufactures and commerce of Boston (XXVI and Table II) ? How does 
it rank as a port of entry (Table V) ? Compare its exports and imports. Com¬ 
pare it with New York as to number of ships. Compare the value of its manu¬ 
factures with those of New York (Table II). It makes more clothing, books, 
and refined sugar than any other New England city, and is the leading wool, 
boot and shoe, and leather market of the United States. Through its port much 
grain, beef and pork are exported from the West, and into the port millions of 
tons of coal come for distribution through New England. Gloucester is the 
leading fishing port of the United States. Wooden vessels are built there. 
Worcester is an inland trade center, and ranks first in the country for the 
manufacture of wire. For what are Lowell, Fall River, New Bedford, zwdi 
Lawretice noted ? Describe the commerce and manufactures of Portland. 
It is an important port of entry. It has fine wdiarfs, warehouses, and grain 
elevators, and dry docks for ship-repairing. For what is Bangor noted? 
Much ice is shipped. Mention other manufacturing and commercial cities. 
What is the only harbor in New Hampshire ? It has considerable coast-wise 
trade, and is a distributing center for coal. Name other manufacturing towns 
of the State. Name the chief cities of Connecticut. What do you know of 
Providettce ? It is a port of entry, and is the second city in New England 
in size and w'ealth. What are its chief manufactures (Table II) ? It 
ranks first in the Union in jew'elry, silverware, and worsteds. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of New England locate the chief manufac¬ 
turing cities and write a fact about each. 2. Make a list of as many articles as you 
can that are made in New England. 

36 . Cities of the Middle Atlantic States. —On what minerals 
do the manufacturers of these States depend ? How is the coast 
adapted for commerce? How are the seaports connected with 
the interior (XXVII, 5, 8)? What do you know of the com¬ 
merce and manufactures of New York (XXVIII, 2, and Tables 11 , 
III, IV)? It is the second commercial city of the world. Nearly 
half the foreign commerce of the country passes through this 
port, and its domestic commerce is many times greater. Why 
and how are goods reshipped here? What do you know of the 
manufactures of Rochester (Table II)? It is the third city in the 
State, and owes its importance to the Genesee Falls. The canal 
and railroad trade is large, as is also the lake trade through 
Charlotte on Lake Ontario. Describe the manufactures and com¬ 
merce of'Bujf a lo (Table II and XXVIII, 3). This is the second 
city in New York. About 1200 vessels enter and clear here annu¬ 
ally. Compare with the trading vessels in New York harbor 
(Table V). Meat packing is the largest industry. The water¬ 
power of Niagara Falls is used in manufacturing. Name other 
important cities in New York. Philadelphia is the leading city 
of the country in the total value of its textile industries, and it 
ranks high in the making of clothing and machinery, and in 
publishing. What are the chief industries of Pittsburgh 
(Table II).^ Pittsburgh about equals Boston in the value of 
its manufactures.. Over half of its products are iron and steel. 
Name other large cities of Pennsylvania. What manufacturing 







































NORTH AMERICA. 


13 


cities in Delaware (XXIX) ? Name the manufactures of Newark 
(XXVIII; Table II), Of Jersey City. Of Paterson. Describe 
the trade and manufactures of Baltimore (XXIX and Table 
II). Name other cities of Maryland ; of West Virginia. What 
do you know of the manufactures of Richmond? It became 
a manufacturing city because of the water-power due to its 
location on the “ Fall Line,” but it now uses much coal. Nor¬ 
folk is the largest peanut market in the world. What of 
Portsmouth ? Petersburg, Lynchburg and Danville ? Roanoke 
and Newport News? 

Written Work.—i. Locate on outline map all cities named in this lesson. 
2. Make a list giving the chief manufacturing industry in each city and the best 
reason you can for its being carried on there. 

37 . Manufactures and Cities of the Southern States.—The 

Southern States now manufacture a great deal of their own raw 
materials. These consist chiefly of cotton and its seed, forest 
products, sugar, coal, iron, and rice, with the addition of cattle 
products in Texas. Cotton goods is the largest manufacture. 
In this, South Carolina ranks first. North Carolina second, and 
Georgia third. But every Southern State, except Florida, makes 
some cotton goods. Some factories have moved from New 
England to the Southern States, to be nearer the raw material. 
Yarns and coarse grades of cloth are manufactured for sale 
to Eastern Asia. What do you know of naval .stores? For 
sugar and iron, see XXXIII-IV. 

Wilmington ships cotton and naval stores. Charlotte and 
Raleigh have cotton factories and cotton-seed oil mills (XXXI). ’ 
At Newbern there is held, every February, a fish, oyster, and 
game fair. Name other important places in North Carolina. 
Give four chief cities of Tennessee, with their industries. Give 
four cities of South Carolina. The harbor of Charleston is nat¬ 
urally poor, but has been much improved by jetties. A ferti¬ 
lizer is made there chiefly from phosphate rock. Locate four cities 
of Georgia. Savannah ships enormous amounts of naval stores 
and supplies northern markets with early fruit and vegetables. 
Atlanta is the meeting point of several natural routes of 
travel, and is therefore called the “Gate City of the South.” 
The railroads have followed these routes. Augusta is called 
the “ Lowell of the South.” Why (XXXI)? Locate four im¬ 
portant cities of Florida. Key West and Tampa rank next to 
New York in the import and manufacture of Cuban tobacco. 
Locate the four chief cities of Alabama. Mobile imports fruit. 
Sisal hemp, and rubber from Mexico and Central America, and 
ships coal, iron, and produce to Gulf ports. Birmingham is the 
center of the iron and steel industries, and has many furnaces, 
mills and factories. Montgomery has cotton factories, cotton-seed 
oil mills and has' a large wholesale trade. 

Locate four cities of Mississippi. Meridian is the chief manu¬ 
facturing city of the State. It gets coal cheaply from Alabama, 
and raw materials for its manufactures from the cotton-fields, pine 
forests, and iron furnaces of the South. What cities engage in 
river, as well as railroad, trade ? Locate four cities of Louisiana. 
New Orleans is the chief manufacturing city of the South. It is 
the greatest cotton market of the world. How does it rank in im¬ 
ports ? In exports (Tables III, IV)? It is a great market for 
the fruit and coffee of South and Central America and the West 
Indies, and it exports sugar, rice, and barrel heads and staves. 
It is a point of transfer for the foodstuffs of the West, and 


the clothing and manufactured goods of the East. Shreveport is 
a railroad center, ships cotton and is an important distributing 
point for the surrounding country. Name other important 
places in Louisiana. 

Locate five cities of Texas. Galveston ranks next to New 
Orleans as a cotton port. It was devastated by a great storm 
in 1900 , and a great wall has since been constructed to protect 
the town from the sea. Houstori is the chief railroad center of the 
State, and has a waterway to the Gulf. It exports quantities of 
cotton, and much lumber and rice. Dallas is the most important 
city of northern Texas. Its great manufacture is saddlery and 
harness. It is the seat of an annual state fair. San Antonio is a 
distributing point for southwest Texas and a favorite winter 
resort. Fort Worth is a shipping point for cattle, and has stock- 
yards and packing-houses. El Paso is the gateway from the East 
to Mexico and California. It has smelting plants where ore from 
Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico is reduced. 

Written Work. 1. Locate on an outline map the cities of the Southern States 
named above. 2. From Tables II—V, write a paragraph on the trade of the chief 
Southern ports. , 

38 . Cities of the Central States.—What are the chief min¬ 
erals of these states (XXXVI) ? Vegetable products? Fisheries? 
What are their chief exports? The facilities for transportation? 
What are the industries of (XXXVII) ? On what falls 

is it? Of what advantage is this? Coal, iron and lumber are 
easily brought to the city by water. What industries arise from 
this ( 23 )? Louisville is the chief manufacturing city of Ken¬ 
tucky, and the leading tobacco market in the world. 

Where are Covington and Newport? How are they connected with 
Cincinnati (XXXVII)? They manufacture tobacco, iron, steel, liquors, cloth¬ 
ing, and packed meats. What do you know of Lexington ? Name other 
important cities of Kentucky and their industries. 

Where is Cincinnati ? It is connected by river and rail with 
Pittsburgh and St. Louis. In this way it obtains material for its 
machine shops and packing houses. It makes also much clothing, 
boots, and shoes. Why is the lake front of Cleveland well placed 
for the manufacture of steel (23) ? Electrical apparatus, sewing 
machines, and automobiles are among its products. 

For what is To/ctfo noted? Dayton? Akron? Columbus? 

Indianapolis has extensive foundries and machine shops, flour 
mills, carriage and wagon factories, and makes automobiles and 
furniture. For what is Fort Wayne noted ? It has large electrical 
works, pump manufactories, and knitting mills. Name other 
chief cities of Indiana. For what is Chicago noted ? It has 
enormous meat-packing industries, iron and steel works, furni¬ 
ture factories, carriage and car shops, and publishes many books. 
Cotton and woolen goods, silks and laces, and various other 
materials are brought from the factories of Europe and the 
Eastern States for use in the manufacture of men’s, women’s, and 
children’s clothing. 

Flaxseed is obtained in Michigan and Wisconsin for the linseed oil used in 
making paints and varnishes. Leather products, worth sixteen million dol¬ 
lars, are made annually. Name other manufacturing and commercial towns of 
Illinois. • 

Locate Detroit. What are its occupations and advantages ? 
Automobile shops are its chief factories. It manufactures almost 
five million dollars’ worth of druggists’ preparations yearly. It 
has also tobacco factories, and several large meat-packing establish¬ 
ments. Where is Grand Rapids? Its chief industry is furniture 




LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


M 


making. There are over thirty factories. Where can they get 
their lumber (XXXIX) ? Name several other important cities of 
Michigan. 

What do you know of Milwaukee f Its chief products are 
from its foundries, but it is noted for boots and shoes. Its 
leather products are worth over thirty millions a year, and much 
flour is made. Name other important cities of Wisconsin. For 
what is Minneapolis noted ? The annual products of its flour 
mills are valued at about eighty million dollars. The lumber 
products which rank next, are only one-seventh as valuable. 
These are the two great industries of the city. Name 
other cities of this State. What are the cities of North Dakota? 
Fargo and Grand Forks lead in manufacturing, but their prod¬ 
ucts are mostly for consumption within the State. What are 
the cities of South Dakota? Locate 5/. For what is 

it noted (XL)? It is the second greatest manufacturing city of 
the Middle West, although its products are only one-fourth as 
great as those of Chicago. 

This is mainly due to its poorer connection with the Atlantic seaboard. 
The river is spanned at this point by'fine bridges. Name other cities of 
Missouri. For what is Des Moines noted? It is in the center of a fine 
farming region. What are other cities of Iowa? Where is Kansas City ? 
The two cities of this name really form one center of population; their divid¬ 
ing line runs through the middle of a street. The great meat-packing 
establishments for which the cities are famous are on the Kansas side. 
Name other industrial cities of Kansas. Where is Omaha? Omaha is 
noted for its great slaughtering and meat-packing industries, and with 
Council Bluffs it forms a railroad and trade center and shipping point for 
cattle. 

Written Work.—i. Locate on an outline map the cities of the Central States, 
and state a fact about each bearing on “its industries or trade. 2. Compare the 
industries of the Central States with those of the Southern or New England States. 

39 . Cities of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific States and 
Territories. —What are the physical features of these sections? 
Their chief products ? Some of the cities are built where they 
can supply food, clothing and tools to mining regions, and smelt 
or refine the ores from the mines. Some are built near forests, 
or on salmon streams, and are engaged in lumbering or fruit 
canning. Which are built near the coast ? In what industry 
may they be engaged ? Which are on great transcontinental 
railroads ? For what region is each a distributing center? 

Albuquerque is a railroad center. On what system (map) ? For what 
is it noted (XLI) ? Locate Denver. What are its industries ? It is 
the financial center of the mining district of Colorado. The making of iron 
and steel goods for use in mining processes is its largest industry. There 
are abundant coal and iron at hand. Flour, books and paper, cars and car¬ 
riages are among the varied manufactures of this city. On what river and 
what railroads, isWhat are its industries? It is near enough to 
coal, iron, and petroleum to enable it to smelt the lead ores of the region 
advantageously. Locate two other mining centers of Colorado. Where is 
Cheyenne ? It is a shipping point for cattle. Name other cities of Wyoming ? 
Where is Helena ? It is in a rich mineral region. Describe Butte and 
Anaconda (XLI). Name other cities of Montana. What are the cities of 
Nevada ? Name three cities of Arizona. Tucson reduces silver and copper 
ore. Locate two cities of Utah. Why are they so near each other ? On 
what railroads are they ? Locate two cities of Idaho. 

Where is San Francisco? For what noted ? It has a fine, 
deep harbor, and is the center of much trade. Its exports go 
chiefly to Asia; its imports also come from Asia and from 
Hawaii. It sells the wheat, lumber, flour, canned salmon, fruit, 
and meat of the Pacific region, and brings tea and silk from 


China, coffee from Central America, coal from Australia and 
British Columbia, and sugar from Hawaii. Seal furs are brought 
here from Alaska, to be shipped to London for dyeing. Sugar is 
refined, leather, boots and shoes, tobacco, soap, books and many 
other articles are made. For what is Los Angeles noted? The 
city extends to its harbor on the coast. 

For what is Portland noted? It manufactures flour and lum¬ 
ber. Jetties have been built at the mouth of the Columbia 
River, so that Portland is really a seaport. It has much coast¬ 
wise trade in flour and lumber. Here are important shipbuilding 
plants. Where is Salem ? It has flour and wool mills. Locate 
Tacoma and Seattle. They are, next to San Francisco, our chief 
seaports on the Pacific coast. What railroads terminate at 
Seattle? Fish-canning is an important industry, both here and 
at Astoria. 


TABLE II 


The Leading Manufacturing Districts and Cities of the United States. 
Their Leading Industries and Value of Products in Million Dol¬ 
lars. Census of 1914 . 


Districts and 
CrriBS ‘ 


Leading Industries and Value 


Value of all 
Industries 


New York 
District. .. . 

Chicago 
District.... 

Philadelphia 
District.... 

Boston 
District.... 

Pittsburgh 
District.... 

Detroit 
District.... 

St. Louis 
District.... 

Cleveland 
District.... 

Baltimore 
District.... 

Buffalo 
District.... 

Minneapolis- 
St. Paul 
District.... 

Cincinnati 
District.... 

San Francisco- 
Oakland 
District.... 

Milwaukee . .. 

Kansas City, 
Kansas .... 

Rochester.... 


Indianapolis. . 

Akron. 

Los Angeles 
District.... 
Providence. . . 

Toledo. 

South Omaha. 

Louisville. 

Youngstown.. 
Lawrence. 


Clothing (532), Printed Matter (215), Packed Meats 
(ill). Bread, etc. (80), Castings and Machinery (78) 
Packed Meats (407), Clothing (103), Castings and 
Machinery (102), Printed Matter (99), Cars (68).. 
Textiles (177), Clothing (63), Printed Matter (56), 

Castings and Machinery (55), Leatner (35). 

Boots and Shoes (104), Packed Meats (43), Printed 
Matter (43), Leather (36), Castings and Machinery 

( 32 ). 

Iron and Steel (276), Castings and Machinery (68), 

Cars (20), Packed Meats (19), Glass (ii). 

Automobiles (164'), Castings and Machinery (29), 
Packed Meats (20), Tobacco (17), Brass and Cop¬ 
per (14). 

Packed Meats (104), Boots and Shoes (31), Cloth¬ 
ing (15), Printed Matter (18), Castings and 

Machinery (18). 

Castings and Machinery (51), Iron and Steel (33), 
Automobiles (27), clothing (25), Packed Meats (25) 
Clothing (44), Copper and Tin (25), Packed Meats 

(17), Fertilizers (12), Printed Matter (10). 

Packed Meats (29), Flour (28), Castings and Ma¬ 
chinery (27), Automobiles (ii), Printed Matter (9) 
Flour (85), Clastings and Machinery (16), Printed 
Matter (15), Lumber (10), Cars (8). 


$3,814,661,000 

1.734,736,000 

997,073,000 

642,350,000 

573,380,000 

569,519,000 

493,220,000 

363,664,000 

313,800,000 

247,576,000 

295,292,000 


Castings and Machinery (26),Packed Meat (23), Cloth¬ 
ing (18), Printed Matter (16), Boots and Shoes (15). 
Packed Meats (26), Printed Matter (16), Canned 
Goods, (14), Castings and Machinery (12), Bread 

etc. (9) . 

Leather (23), Castings and Machinery (20), Boots 
and Shoes (12), Printed Matter (8), Knit Goods (7) 
Packed Meats (133). 


287,816,000 


258,077,000 

223,555,000 

159,700,000 


Clothing (20), Boots and Shoes (15), Castings 
and Machinery (8), Printed Matter (6), Flour (4), 

Furniture (3). 

Packed Meats (38), Automobiles (12), Castings and 

Machinery (ii). Flour (8). 

Rubber Goods (92). 

Packed Meats (16), Lumber (10), Castings and Ma¬ 
chinery (10), Printed Matter (to). 

Jewelry (21), Woolen Goods (21), Castings and Ma¬ 
chinery (ii). 

Castings and Machinery (6), Coffee Gr’d’g (6), Flour 

(6). 

Packed Meats (104). 

Flour (7), Cars (7), Castings and Machinery (6). 

Iron and Steel (49). 

Woolen Goods (51), Cotton Goods (7)... . 


140,697,000 

139,700,000 

122,292,000 

118,799,000 

115.335,000 

113,049,000 

106,025,000 

105,223,000 

92,111,000 

73,177,000 


* A metropolitan district includes a large city and its suburbs. The New York 
District includes many cities in New Jersey. 



































NORTH AMERICA. 


15 


Locate Sacramento. It is the chief city in a long valley, which forms the 
granary of the State. The city manufactures considerable flour. Locate 
Los Angeles. The electric power used in this city is generated by a water¬ 
fall eighty miles away. Where is Alameda ? It is in an orange-growing re¬ 
gion. Canned fruit and flour are exported. Name other cities of the Pacific 
States. 

Written Work. Locate on an outline map the cities named in this lesson, and 
state some fact about each bearing on its industrial importance. 


Other Countries of North America. 

40. Canada.—What are the surface features of Canada (Phys. 
Map, N. Am.)? The climate (XX, XLIV)? The chief resources ? 
The industries? With what nations is commerce carried on? 
What are the chief Canadian trade routes? By what routes 
does Canada trade with this country (XLIV)? With Europe? 
With Asia? Name the chief mineral products and tell where 
each is found; the products of herding; farming; forestry; 
fishing; hunting. In 1910 nearly two million dollars’ worth of 
furs were obtained, but wild fur-bearing animals are rapidly de¬ 
creasing. The manufactures consist chiefly of flour, leather, lum¬ 
ber, and alcohol. Canada makes more cheese than any other 
country in the world. Shoes, beer, cane sugar, cotton cloth, and 
farm tools are made for home use. What raw materials used in 
these manufactures are you sure that Canada imports ? Give rea¬ 
sons. From Fig. 23 state the chief occupations of Canada; the 



least important. Compare with Fig. i. In what are the industries 
of the two countries alike ? How do they differ ? Name the chief 
cities of Canada, and tell for what each is noted. 

From Fig. 27 describe the trade of Canada with the United States. What 
raw materials do we buy of her ? Can you tell why Toronto imports our coal 
while British Columbia exports coal to us ? Would cost of transportation ex¬ 
plain it ? Why does Canada buy more goods of us than of Great Britain ? 
Why does she sell Great Britain more wheat than she does to us ? 

Written Work.—I. From Fig. 27 write a paragraph on our trade with 
Canada. 2. On outline map of North America write our exports to and our imports 
from Canada as shown in Fig. 27. 

Mexico (XLVI).—Give the location of Mexico; its 
physical features ; its climate. What are its mineral products ? 
animal ? How does Mexico now rank in silver production ? 
Find out from Fig. 24 her share of the world’s production. 
Name the vegetable products of its several regions. The coffee 
of Oaxaca (wa-ha'-ka) ranks with Mocha and Java. From Fig. 
25 give the three chief industries. How does manufacturing 
rank? Compare the industries of Mexico with those of the 
United States and Canada (Figs, i, 23, 25). As in Canada, the 


manufactures of Mex¬ 
ico consist of the ne¬ 
cessities of life. They 
are generally of rude 
workmanship. Our 
chief exports to Mex¬ 
ico are cotton goods 
and iron and steel 
products. What rail¬ 
roads connect the 
United States and 
Mexico (Transporta¬ 
tion Map, U. S.).^ 

Steamship lines, 
which carry the greater part of the trade, connect Vera Cruz 
and Tampico with our chief Atlantic ports. Name these lines 

0 10 20 30 40 50 ‘60 70 80 90 100 which of 

our ports they enter 
(33)’ Find Carmen. 
It is the shipping 
port for the sisal 
hemp of Yucatan, 
our chief import 
from Mexico. Study 
Tables HI and IV 
for the articles of 
our trade with Mexico. Most of the mining, railroading, and 
foreign trade, in Mexico, is in the hands of Americans or Ger¬ 
mans. This is due to the enterprise and engineering skill of the 
Americans and to the efforts of German merchants to extend 
their trade. What is needed to build railroads ? 

Written Work.—l. Consult Fig. 27 and give the best reasons you can why cer¬ 
tain things are exported and others imported. 2. On an outline map write our 
exports to Mexico and our imports from that country ; locate the chief seaports. 

42. Central America (XLVH).—Locate Central America. 
Describe its surface; climate. Compare with Mexico. What 
are its mineral resources? Vegetable? The low plain on the 
east yields tropical fruits. The interior is mostly forested. 
Name the forest products. A medicinal gum called “bal¬ 
sam of Peru ” is also found. The high western coast contains 
the plantations and farms. What are the chief farm products? 
Wheat, corn, cattle and sheep are produced in the higher table¬ 
lands, but not enough for the home demand. Name the 
states of Central America and the form of government of each. 
The people are entirely engaged in agriculture and mining, 
but the mines are little developed because transportation is 
poor. The people lack education, and are frequently engaged 
in civil war; manufactures are backward. What are the chief 
exports (XLVII)? The trade is chiefly controlled by for¬ 
eigners. 

Our largest import from Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Salvador is coffee ; 
from Honduras and Nicaragua, bananas and mahogany. From trade map. 
Fig. 27, name our exports to Central America. The building of the canal 
has increased our trade with Panama. What are our other imports from 
that country ? What does our trade show with regard to the industrial 
development of Central America ? 

Written Work.—i. On an outline map of Central America locate the chief sea¬ 
ports and steamship lines entering them, and write the exports and imports carried 
as in Fig. 27. 2. Write a paragraph on the republic of Panama and our interests 

there. 



1 11 1 1 I I I I 11 111 11 I 111 1 111 111 111 11 I I 11 111 11 I 111 1 1111 






PARM 




STOCK RAISING 


EXPORTS OF THE 
LEADING 
INDUSTRIES 

MANUFACTURING OF MEXICO 

(IN MILLION D0LL.UIS, 1913) 

Fig. 25. 

























































i6 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


43. The West Indies.—Describe the location of these islands; 
their size; divisions; surface (Phys. Map, N. Am.); climate 
(XLVIII). Which are independent? To whom do the rest belong? 
From Fig. 27 name their chief products and describe their trade 
with us. These islands are almost entirely agricultural. The 
sugar industry is more important than all others combined. So 
much attention is given to it that food crops are neglected, and 
the islands depend on the United States, Canada, and South 
America for flour and meat. Compare the density of popula¬ 
tion in the West Indies and our country (Table VI). In the 
more thickly settled parts of our country and of Europe, wealth 
is great. This is not true in these islands. In 1899, sixty-four 
per cent, of the people of Cuba could not read. What bearing 
may this have on prosperity? Exports from Cuba have doubled 
since her independence. What trade-routes do you know from 
these islands (Trade Chart and 33)? Little attention has been 
given to road-building, and only the regions near the coast are 
developed; the farmers in the interior of Cuba and Porto Rico 
raise only enough fruit, vegetables, and grain for their own needs. 

Since the independence of Cuba and the acquisition of Porto Rico by the 
United States, railroads have been begun which will connect all the lead¬ 
ing towns on each island and make a continuous circuit of the coast. 
Highways also are being built and streams bridged in order to connect the 
rich interior regions with these roads. What do you know of Cuban 
tobacco (13)? From map, Fig. 27, describe our trade with the West Indies. 

Written Work.—i. Write a paragraph on the industries of the West Indies. 
2. Compare West Indian products with those of the United States. 3. Explain how 
our trade depends on the difference in climate. 



1000 


2000 


44. Sugar.—The English-speaking peoples use about half of 
the world’s supply of sugar. In the United States the average 
consumption is about eighty pounds a year for each person. 

4000 5000 6000 Sugar is made 

chiefly from 
sugar cane and 
the sugar beet. 
The juices are 
extracted and 
boiled, and the 
sugar is allowed 
to crystallize. 
This gives 
“raw sugar” 
and molasses. 
The raw sugar 
is then “ re- 
fined” or 
whitened. 


HAWAIIAN IS. 
PORTO RICO 
ARGENTINA 
BRAZIL 
LOUISIANA 

TOT 

AUSTRALIA 

MAURITIUS 

PHILIPPINES 


WpRlD’S PRODUCTIOir OF 
CANE SUGAR 
! IN MILLION POUNDS 
PRODUCT **.836 MU^LION POUNDS 


The countries that produce raw sugar are seldom the ones to refine it. 
Hawaiian sugar is refined in San Francisco, Cuban sugar in New York and 
New Orleans, and East Indian sugar ip Holland. The reason for this is that 
the process of refining is a complicated one requiring expensive machinery. 
Molasses is also made from corn, from potato-starch, and from sorghum, an 
inferior sugar cane. In European countries the sugar grower'is paid a small 
bounty by government. How would this affect production ? The refuse 
beet is good food for cattle, while the refuse cane is burned. Many coun¬ 
tries that formerly raised sugar cane at a profit have been forced by the com¬ 
petition of beet sugar to raise other crops. As the sugar beet can be more 
cheaply grown than cane in the countries that consume the sugar, the cane 
sugar grower is at a disadvantage, since his product must pay the cost of 
transportation. 


Written Work.—1. Using Figs. 26 and 32, write an account of the world’s 
production of sugar, telling in what countries and climate the sugar beet grows; 
also where sugar cane is grown—countries, and climate. 2. On map of the world, 
show by color or shading the countries producing beet and cane sugar. 



Fig. 27.—TRADB OF THE UNITED STATES WITH OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. OUR 
EXPORTS ARE PLACED IN THE COUNTRY BUYING THEM. OUR IMPORTS ARE PLACED NEAR THE 
BORDER OF THE COUNTRY THAT SELLS THEM. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS ARE NAMED IN ORDER OF 
THEIR VALUES. 

Review of Our North American Trade.—Which parts of 
this continent are largely unproductive ? Why ? Compare our 
trade with the tropical part of the continent with our trade with 
the cold part. Name products obtained from each section. 
What products do we obtain from the western part of Canada? 
The eastern part ? The central part ? What are the means of 
transportation in each case. If instead of the Great Lakes and 
the St. Lawrence River, a high range of mountains separated 
Canada and the United States, how do you think the trade 
between these countries would be affected? What countries of 
Europe can you name that are separated by mountains? Of 
Asia? Do you know what effect this separation has had on 
these countries? Judging from the map, what do you think of 
the importance of our eastern coasting trade? What goods are 
sold to Mexico ? From what part of our coast would they be 
sent? What goods are received at our southern ports (Table 
IV)? How do you think the Panama Canal will help the trade 
of the western coast of North America? How will it help the 
West Indies? 

































EUROPE. 


17 


Europe. 

45. Physical Features ; Resources.—How do the United 
States and Europe compare in size? In latitude ? In climate? 
How do you explain the difference in temperature (LV, 4)? 
Like the United States, Europe has abundant rainfall. It is 
brought hiy westerly winds and decreases with distance from the 
ocean until in southeastern Russia the soil is nearly barren from 
lack of rain. How does the direction of mountain ranges affect 
the rainfall of Europe ? What mountains separate central from 
southern Europe? Effect on trade (LVIII) ? In the Mediter¬ 
ranean countries there is little rain except in winter. Hence, 
successful farming depends upon irrigation. 

The deeply indented shores of Western Europe give nearly every country 
a strip of sea-coast. What countries have no coast line ? How is commerce 
affected by coast line.? The rivers of the Great Plain are navigable. Why 
is this? Name the rivers valuable to commerce. What countries do these 
rivers help? Turn to physical map of Europe and point out the chief farming 
regions; the mineral regions; the grazing regions; the forests; the fisheries. 
Name the plants of northern Europe; of southern Europe. To what indus¬ 
tries do some of these plants lead? How does climate affect industries in 
southeastern Europe? In southern Europe? In western Europe? A moist 
•climate favors agriculture and the making of textiles (48). 

Written Work.—l. On an outline map of Europe draw the chief rivers and 
mountain ranges. 2. Locate the mineral products. 3. The vegetable products. 

46. Races; Governments; Civilization.—The people of 
Europe and of North America are almost entirely of the white 
race. What exceptions are there ? Europe, though little 
larger than the United States, includes thirty different nations, 
each having its own government and language. Which of these 
nations are monarchies ? How many of them are republics ? How 
does western Europe compare with eastern Europe in wealth, 
manufactures, education and trade? 

In production and trade Europe ranks first among the continents. We 
may divide it according to races and industries into three sections, western, 
eastern, and southern Europe. Western Europe is inhabited mainly by the 
Teutonic, the most progressive of the races. It includes Great Britain, 
France, Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, 
and Denmark. These nations are marked by density of population, great manu¬ 
facturing interests, and extensive trade. Southern Europe, including Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, and Greece, is chiefly agricultural, producing fruits, wine, oil, 
and silk. The people are mainly of the Latin race. Eastern Europe includes 
Russia, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Jugoslavia. 
Farm crops and stock are the chief products, and the ruling people are, except 
in Hungary and Roumania, of the Slavonic race. The following table will indi¬ 
cate the relation between intelligence and trade. 


SECTIONS. 

Population 

PER 

Square Mile. 

Value of For¬ 
eign Trade PER 
Person. 

Cannot Read 
Nor Write. 

Supported by 
THE State 
(Paupers'). 


340 

130 

1 10 

$120 

Sf 

3 ^ 


15 

65 ^ 



12 

70% 

loi 







Fig. 28. 


Western Europe can support a large population because it has many 
industries which give employment to thousands of people. Southern and 
eastern Europe, where there are fewer profitable occupations, furnish the 
most of the immigrants that come to America. Remembering that manu¬ 


facturing is most expensive in western Europe, vve may learn from Fig. 30 
tliat there is more wealth and intelligence, and less poverty and ignorance in 
manufacturing and commercial countries than in those that are mainly 
devoted to farming and herding. 

Written Work.—l. On outline map of Europe write in each countr)Mts race and 
leading industry. 2. Write a paragraph comparing Russia and France in regard 
to government and industries. 3.' Compare Belgium with Italy as to industries, 
referring to natural resources and climate as causes of difference. 

47 - The United States and Europe.—British trading com¬ 
panies established the first English colonies in America and 
developed the country in the interest of commerce (see London 
and Plymouth companies, U. S. histories). But in those days 
the British Government thought only of its own interests. “ The 
only use of colonies,” said one Englishman, “ is to furnish freight 
for our ships and a market for our goods.” Manufacturing in 
the colonies was forbidden, and trade allowed with England only. 
In this way a dispute grew up over production and trade which 
led to the Revolutionary War and the independence of the 
United States. Long after the Revolution, this country remained 
dependent on Europe for manufactured goods, exchanging for 
them lumber, fish, tobacco, and indigo. 

The wars of France and England and their interference with our seamen 
led to the War of 1812. Our victories in this war secured respect for our 
flag and safety for our ships. The interruption to trade caused by war led to 
an increase in home manufactures. The invention of the cotton-gin had 
already led to the export of cotton, and the building of railroads and canals 
that opened the Mississippi Valley to trade led to the exporting of grain and' 
meat to the overpopulated manufacturing countries of Europe. These still 
form about one-third of our exports, being worth over two billion dollars a year. 
Our export of manufactured goods has, however, continually increased. In 
1820, 7^% of our exports were manufactures; in 1920, 50%. Owing to labor- 
saving machinery and skilled workmen much of our manufacturing is conducted 
at less cost than in European countries. This enables us to pay high wages and 
yet to produce cheap goods. 

While we were spending our energies in opening up new lands and in de¬ 
veloping railroads most of our manufactures were consumed at home, and we 
cared less about trade with foreign nations. Rut now that we are beginning 
to export more manufactures, we are coming into competition with European 
merchants in Asia, Africa, and South America. Moreover, our possessions 
in the Pacific and the West Indies bring us into closer relations with the 
nations of Europe. There is increasing travel between the old world and the 
new, due to improvement in steam navigation. More people go every year 
from New York to England than from New York to San Francisco, and the 
cost of the journey is less. About one-half of our exports are sent to western 
Europe, and two-fifths of our imports are bought there. The great manufacturing 
cities there buy raw materials for their factories and food for their people 
from us and sell to us many of their manufactures. Thus our commercial 
and political relations with the people of Europe are very close. 

Written Work.—Make a list of our manufactures exported to Europe 
(Table III). 

48. The United Kingdom.—Of what commercial advantage 
to Great Britain are the following: location? numerous estu¬ 
aries, or sunken river valleys, along the coast? a mild and moist 
climate? (such a climate favors textile industries, as all fibers 
are more easily spun when slightly damp); vast deposits of coal 
and iron? numerous colonies in every part of the globe? Until 
recently. Great Britain was the chief manufacturing nation of the 
world. Which nation is first now (Fig. 19) ? England was the 
first of modern nations to make iron and steel. The first modern 
ship-canal was made in England. The spinning machine, power 
loom, the steam engine, and locomotive were first made there. 
Being the first great manufacturing nation and having many 
ships and colonies, Great Britain secured a large part of the 

























i8 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


world’s trade and still holds it (LVI). What is the character of 
the British people (LVI, 3) ? Find four cities located in the coal 
fields of Great Britain. What are their industries? In what 
parts of the country are the agricultural industries? What are 



the leading crops and animals? Where are the fisheries? What 
kinds of fish are found ? What manufactures are produced in 
Ireland? What cities are engaged in ship-building? 

Compare the shipping of Great Britain with that of other countries ; the 
railroads ; the iron and steel product; exports; imports. How does the 
balance of trade stand ? More than half the commerce of the world is carried 
by British vessels. The money which England receives for this helps to off¬ 
set the trade balance against her. Besides her manufactures and trade Great 
Britain has valuable fisheries and is, according to size, a great farming and 
stock-raising country. 

Written Work. — i. On an outline map of the British Isles locate chief seaports 
and steamship lines entering them (p. 93). 2. On an outline map of the world show 

by color or shading the British colonies. 

49. Manufacturing Cities of the United Kingdom.—These 
are grouped largely in the various coal-producing regions. Locate 
Newcastle. It is the chief city of the northern coal field. What 
are its manufactures? Find Sheffield and Leeds. Of what indus¬ 
tries is each the center ? Find Manchester. A ship canal from the 
Mersey makes this city a port. Of what industry is it the cen¬ 
ter? What is that mining field called which \nc\\id&s Birming- 
ham{lN\, 12)? For what is it noted? ■ Near Birmingham is a 
region called “ The Potteries ” because of the earthenware and 
china made from the clay found in the neighborhood. Find 
Cardiff in Wales. It is the chief of a group of cities using the 


coal of the region to feed iron and copper furnaces, and leads in 
the export of hard coal. Find Glasgow. The coal fields of Scot¬ 
land supply its furnaces and the ship-building works on the 
Clyde. Several British cities are noted for special products, as 
Nottingham for lace, Paisley for shawls, Belfast for linen, Worcester 
for china, and Bradford for broadcloth, London imports and dis¬ 
tributes more goods than any other city, but its exports are com¬ 
paratively small. Why is this ? Locate Liverpool. What is its 
commercial rank? Its harbor is kept open at great cost. Its 
trade is chiefly with America and West Africa. Foods and cot¬ 
ton are imported, and the goods and machinery made in the 
great factories of northern England are exported. The harbor 
of Glasgow consists of basins and docks built along the Clyde. 
This city imports ore and raw material, and sends out ships, iron 
and steel, glass, and other manufactures of the Scottish mills. 

exports machinery and coal. Why (Fig. 31)? Locate 
Hull. The cotton and woolen goods of the northern mills are 
sent from here to the continent of Europe. There is consider¬ 
able cross-channel trade with the continent of Europe from 
Dover and Southampton. American and South African vessels 
land passengers for London at these ports. Queenstown, in Ire¬ 
land, is a station for American mails. 

Written Work.—i. From tables III and IV make a map showing our trade with 
the United Kingdom (See Fig. 27). 2. Locate on an outline map the chief manu¬ 

facturing centers of Great Britain and Ireland and write under the city the name of 
the chief industry of that place. 

50. France.—(Review Map Studies). Describe the position, 
size, surface features, and climate of France. Why is France 
better located than England for trade with the East ? What 
are its chief agricultural products (Fig. 30)? What section is 
noted for horses? The north of France produces breeds of 
horses famous for size and strength. They have been introduced 
into all civilized countries. France has long been noted as a 
fruit-growing country. The farms are small and carefully culti¬ 
vated. The French farmer is skilful in the production of new 
varieties of pears, apples, peaches, and grapes. In wine France 
surpasses all other countries. What others rank high (Fig. 33) ? 
From what countries do we import wine (Table IV)? What 
other beverages.obtained from fruits are produced in France? 
In what parts are cattle and sheep chiefly raised ? The chief iron 
and steel works are at St. Etienne, where coal and iron occur 
together. In what other region is coal found? To other centers 
iron ore is imported from Belgium, Spain, and Germany. Coal 
comes from Cardiff. Salt mines are worked near Nancy, and 
building stone, cement, clay, and phosphate are found. The fine 
clays of central France give rise to the pottery industries of 
Limoges and Sfevres. “ Plaster of Paris ” is a well known white 
cement. How does France rank in manufactures (Fig. 19)? 
France leads the world in the production of high grade and 
brocaded silks. The process of making brocaded silk by machi¬ 
nery was invented by a Frenchman of Lyon named Jacquard, 
and is well known as the “ Jacquard ” loom. French goods bring 
a high price because of their artistic workmanship. 

A pair of ladies’ shoes from Paris, a dress, a hat, a piece of jewelry, or a 
vase may sell for ten times as much as the same article produced elsewhere. 
Transportation within the country is mainly by means of rivers and the 
numerous canals connecting them. How does France rank in railroad mile¬ 
age (Fig. 20) ? In shipping (Fig. 21)? Compare the value of her exports 
and imports (Table VI). What does she buy from us ? Sell to us (Tables 
III, IV) ? Havre is the chief port of entry for American goods. 



























EUROPE. 


*9 



I, 6 ) ? Holland is also noted for its colonial possessions and 
extensive commerce. Describe its colonies (LIX). Dutch 
ships distribute colonial products all over the world, and do a 
large carrying business for other nations. Why is transportation 
easy in Holland? Smooth wagon-roads paved with brick inter¬ 
sect the country. Railroad building is easy, but many bridges 
must be built. Why? On account of cheap transportation 
Holland imports and forwards goods from her ports to the coun¬ 
tries of Central Europe. The winds are a great source of power. 
What use is made of them ? 

Holland has no coal, iron, or other metals. What effect does this have 
on her industries ? Building materials and timber are also lacking. Brick, 
tile, and earthenware are made in abundance. Butter, cheese, meat, and 
oleomargarine are leading exports. Besides jewelry and diamonds we buy 
from Holland tobacco, tin, fish, hides, and cheese. Where do you think she 
produces each of these ? 

Denmark produces and exports mainly milk, butter, and 
cheese. Beef, cattle, horses, wool, and eggs, are also sold. What 
is the value of our imports from Denmark? Why so small? 

They consist chiefly of hides, wool, and rennet, a substance used in cheese¬ 
making. We sell to Denmark oil-cake, grain, flour, cotton, and kerosene. 
Manufacturing is little developed on account of a lack of minerals. Flour, 
beet-sugar, and liquors are made, and Copenhagen builds ships out of 
Norway lumber. The most careful attention is given to butter-making. 


Fine cloths, wines, millinery goods, and articles of luxury are sent to 
America through this port. Cabinet woods from Central America, coffee, 
cocoa, metals from South America, and coal from Wales are also 
brought to Havre. Marseilles is the second important port. Its trade is 
largely with eastern countries and Africa. Wheat from Russia, raw silk 
from Turkey and Central Asia, cotton from India and Egypt, wool, hides, 
and skins from Africa are brought into the port of Marseilles. 

Written Work. — i. On outline map of Europe locate the chief ports and manu¬ 
facturing cities of France and write under each its chief product. 2. On a similar 
naap indicate trade with the United States, as in Fig. 27. 

51. Belgium.—What part of Europe does this country occupy ? 
What do you know of the population and industries of Belgium 
(LIX)? What harbor and what navigable rivers has it? What 
natural wealth favors manufacturing ? Belgium produces more 
manufactured goods per person than any other nation in the 
world. For what is Liege noted ? Ghent? Bruges? Brussels? 
Ostend (LIX)? Belgium was the first of modern European 
countries to make woolen cloth, and still leads in this industry. 
It has, next to Ireland, the finest facilities for making linen. 
The water of the river Lys is well adapted to the bleaching of 
flax, and the dense population of the country furnishes the labor 
needed. This flax is made into fine laces, linens, lawns, and 
cambrics. Hand-made lace requires much labor. In the city of 
Mechlin, over two hundred thousand women and girls are lace- 
makers. What are the total values of Belgium’s exports and im¬ 
ports (Table VI) ? What part of her trade is with us (Table VI) ? 

Written Work. —i. On outline map of Central Europe already begun, write our 
exchanges with Belgium. 2. Make a list of the leading manufactures of Belgium and 
a city noted for each. 

52. Holland and Denmark are the lowest and flattest 
countries in Europe. For what products are both noted (LIX ., 













































































20 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL-GEOGRAPHY. 


There are over one thousand steam factories, where it is packed and salted 
to meet the demands of all markets. Enormous quantities are exported. 
Great Britain and Germany are the largest buyers of Dutch and Danish 
articles of food. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Europe write our exports to Holland 
and Denmark, and the things we receive from them. 2. On a similar map locate 
ports, manufacturing cities, and the chief products. 



2000 


3000 4000 

J L—J I 


5000 



GERMANY 


AuItRi'a and HUNGARY 


RUSSIA 


I ITALY 

I NETHERLANDS 
I BELGIUM 

loTHER COUNTRIES 


WORLD’S PROUUCTIOX OF 
BEET SUGAR 
IN MILLION POUNDS 
AVEKAOE .VNNUAL PKOOUCTIOS 

10,4*1 million pounds 


53. Germany.—(Review Map Studies and LX.) What is the 
surface of Germany ? Describe its climate. Mineral resources. 
Its rank in production of coal. Iron and steel. Copper. Silver. 
What are its agricultural products (Fig. 33) ? A naturally poor 
soil in most of the country has been made very productive by skilful 
farming, and yet it does not produce enough food for the people. 
How does Germany rank in the production of wheat ? Rye ? Oats ? 
Barley ? Sugar ? Lumber (Figs. 2-6, 36) ? Potatoes and rye bread 
form the chief food. The “black bread” of the German peasants is 
made of rye flour. The larger part of the northern plain 
of Europe has a light, sandy soil, suitable for rye, though too 
poor for wheat. What is the rank Of Germany in manufactures 
(Fig. 19)? 

Next to the United States she has made more progress in manufactures 
than any other country. Previous to the Great War she sent us fine knives, 



Fig. 33 .— INDUSTRIAL map of Germany. 


scis.sors, and other cutlery, and we sold her agricultural machinery. Germany sent 
many hides and skins to us to be tanned, and imported shoes and shoe leather 
from us. Where is much tanning done in this country (Table II) ? What are the 
chief manufactures of Germany ? What German state is noted for woolen goods? 
For wines ? What was the total value of her exports and imports (Table VI) ? 
What part of her trade was with us (Table VI)? What were the chief articles 
of our trade with Germany (Tables III, IV)? What are the chief German 
railroad centers ? Trace routes to Vienna, Paris, Petrograd, Constantinople, 
and Rome. Germany is connected also by canals and rivers with the 
neighboring countries with which the bulk of her trade is carried on. Many 
of these are owned by the government.- What do you know of German 
canals (LX) ? Steamers go up the Rhine and by canal to the Rhone. From 
map. Fig. 35, tell what city is noted for pottery ? Toys ? Wine? Woolen and 
linen goods? Printing? What are the great German ports ? 

Written Work.—i. From Tables III and IV, write on the outline map of 
Central Europe our imports from and our exports to Germany. 2. On a similar 
map locate the chief German seaports, manufacturing towns, and a leading product 
of each. 


54. Switzerland (Review LXI) has to pay large sums of 
money to other countries for carrying her good.s. Why is this? 
How does the surface of the country affect production? Next 
to Norway, Switzerland is the poorest farming country in 
Europe. She has few minerals. Hence manufacturing and 
dairying are the only profitable occupations. Transportation is 
well provided for. Fine wagon roads are built along the valleys 
and through the mountain passes. Several tunnels connect the 
country with Italy. 

Swiss scenery is one of the financial resources of the country. Travellers 
spend over seventy million dollars there annually. The railroads earn over 
ten million dollars annually. One-third of the people are engaged in manu¬ 
facturing. The products are noted for quality rather than qi^antity. No 
attempt is made to produce cheap goods. What cities are noted for 
silks (LXI)? Thousands of hand looms in Zurich and St. Gall turn out the 
richest of silks, laces, and embroideries. Swiss muslins are sold all over 
the world. Geneva watches and engraved and enamelled jewelry command 
high prices. Straw braid for hats, wood-carvings, leather goods, fine 
machinery, and scientific instruments are other characteristic products. The 
Swiss maintain technical schools to train workmen for their factories. Besides 
textiles, we import cheese, clocks and watches, aniline dyes, and rennet 
from Switzerland, and sell her raw cotton, iron and steel goods, and chemicals. 
Swiss trade is mainly with her neighbors, France, Germany and Italy. 

Written Work.—i. On outline trade map write our exports to and our imports 
from Switzerland. 2. On a similar map locate manufacturing cities and the chief 
product of each. 


55. Norway and Sweden are now distinct kingdoms. 
Describe the surface of these countries (LXII, 9). Less than 
one-twentieth of the soil of Norway and one-tenth of that of 
Sweden is fit for cultivation, thus the population is sparse. 
Half the Swedes and one-fourth the Norwegians are farmers, 
and yet the land is so poor that food has to be imported. 
Norway has more sailors and ships, according to her popula¬ 
tion, than any other country. Compare with other nations (Fig. 
21). The numerous swift mountain streams furnish power for 
5000 saw mills. The forests of Norway are nearly exhausted, 
but Sweden is the largest lumber exporting country in the 
world. The mining and manufacture of iron is the second 
largest industry in Sweden. Swedish iron made from charcoal 
is used for hardening steel. How does the country rank in this 
product (Fig. 17)? 

The fisheries are very valuable, employing fifty thousand men. The banks 
near the Lofoten Islands are, next to those of Canada, the most valuable 
fishing-grounds in the world. Manufacturing is not extensive. Coarse 














































EUROPE. 


21 


textiles, wood-pulp, and matches are the chief manufactures. The United States 
buys iron, wood-pulp, and fish of these countries and sells them cotton, oil, bread- 
stuffs, farm tools, leather, and tobacco. How does the balance of trade stand 
with them (Table VI) ? From what source besides exports does money come 
into these countries ? 

Written Work.—i. Color on outline map of the world the lumber producing 
countries (Fig. 6). 2. Fill out on outline map of Norway and Sweden the exports to 

and imports from the United States. ‘ 

56. Spain and Portugal (LVIII).—Describe the surface; 
climate; natural resources. The dry climate of Spain is due to 
the mountains that border the coast. Only the coast plains and 
river valleys are fertile. Agriculture in the central plateau re¬ 
gion depends on irrigation. What are the mineral products? 
These are not much used in manufacturing, but are exported as 
raw materials to be manufactured in Great Britain, Germany, and 
France. Sixty-four per cent, of the people are illiterate, which 
helps to account for the backward condition of all industries in 



Spain. How does Spain rank in the production of barley (Fig. 
34) ? Wool (Fig. 45) ? Coal (Fig. 11) ? Spain is the largest iron¬ 
exporting country in Europe. In what part is the iron found 
(p. 87)? The port of Bilbao ships most of it? How do these 
countries rank in copper (Fig. 13)? What is the .silver produc¬ 
tion of Spain (Fig. 25)? Besides cotton we sell to Spain chiefly 
tobacco, lumber, and kerosene, and receive from her cork, wine, 
fruits, nuts, pyrites, and licorice. From Portugal we receive 
cork, wine, argol, rubber, and cocoa. From what colonies might 
Portugal obtain the last two articles (LXXX) ? Pyrites is an 
iron ore from which sulphur is obtained. Argol is a name given 
to the settlings of wine; from it important medicines are made. 
Our exports to Portugal are the same as to Spain. Compare the 
values of the exports and imports of each of these countries and 
find the balance of trade (Table VI). 

Written Work.—I. On trade map write our exchanges with Spain and Portugal. 
2 . Locate on outline map of Europe the chief cities and ports of Spain and Portugal ; 
tell what each city is noted for (LVIII). 

57. Italy.—What does Italy comprise (LVIII) ? Describe its 
surface. Its fisheries. What are the mineral products? Is 
there coal? What are its agricultural products? Much of the 
land is rich, but it is mostly owned in large estates, and does not 
produce food enough for the people. Many Italian peasants 


emigrate, large numbers coming to this country. The lack of 
coal is a drawback to manufacturing, yet cotton, silk and woolen 
goods are made in the large cities, fine glass at Venice, cutlery at 
Milan, straw goods at Leghorn, and coral jewelry at Venice and 
Florence. Venetian glass, Leghorn hats, and Etruscan jewelry 
are famous. Red coral is found near the west coast; its manu¬ 
facture is an old Italian industry, amounting to many million 
dollars a year. What is the value of the foreign trade of Italy 
(Table VI)? How do her exports and imports compare? What 
is her rank in shipping (Fig. 21)? She sells more goods to her 
neighbors, Switzerland, Germany, and France, than elsewhere; 
these are chiefly raw materials and fruits. Describe her trade with 
us (Tables HI, IV). We also buy of Italy sulphur, olive oil, 
cheese, straw braid, marble, and wine, and sell to her tobacco, 
lumber and kerosene. 

Written Work.—i. Locate on map the chief Italian cities and write a statement 
about each. 2. On outline map indicate our trade with Italy. 

58. The Balkan States take their name from the Balkan 
Motmtains.—Locate Greece (LX IV). Describe its surface and 
coast. What are its natural divisions ? Its occupations ? Its chief 
exports ? Greece imports about two-thirds of the grain and flour 
it uses. It buys coal of Great Britain, and petroleum of Russia. 
Of the United States Greece buys kerosene, cotton, and machinery, 
and sells us fruit, cheese, marble, licorice, and valonia (LXIV). How 
do its imports and exports compare (Table V) ? What important 
port in northern Greece ? What part do the Greeks take in the 
trade of the Levant (LXIV) ? They pay in part for their imports 
with the earnings of their ships. What other countries do this 

(48, 55) ? 

Of what does Turkey consist? What is the surface? Climate? 
Coast ? What advantages has Constantinople for commerce ? 
What is the total area of all the countries which use the Danube 
River and all which have ports on the Black Sea ?’ The total popu¬ 
lation ? Many of the products of these countries pass through the 
Bosporus. Make a list of them. Which require large tonnage of 
shipping to carry them ? Which have great value per ton ? Com¬ 
pare the Bosporus as a waterway with the Detroit River; with the 
Suez Canal; with the Panama Canal. What valuable goods come 
overland from Asia-to Constantinople ? How are they transported ? 

Constantinople is a famous market for oriental goods, especially carpets 
and rugs. Many merchants in America and Europe send buyers there every 
year. 

Bulgaria, Jugoslavia, Albania. —Locate these states (Pol. Map., 
Europe). Describe the surface of each (Phys. Map, Europe). What 
are the chief occupations in each ? What are the products ? Find 
the chief cities in each. What large river provides a means of 
transportation for both Jugoslavia and Bulgaria ? What city on the 
Adriatic serves as a port for Jugoslavia ? What port has Bulgaria 
on the Black Sea? These countries are now free from Turkey, 
under whose rule they long suffered from bad government. They 
are improving in education and industries. Their trade is almost 
entirely with European countries. Yet, like Russia, they buy agri¬ 
cultural implements of us. Our imports from these states are 
almost entirely hides and goat skins. 

Written Work. —i. Draw an outline map of the Balkan States and locate the chief 
ports, manufacturing cities, and productions. 2. On a similar map write our exports 
to these countries and our imports from them. 
















































22 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


59. Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia.—Locate Austria. 
Hungary. Czechoslovakia (LXI). In which is the surface largely 
mountainous ? In which is it a plain ? In which is it most varied ? 
Which country produces most grain ? Which has the largest mineral 
wealth ? Largest industries ? Of what use are the high mountains 
in these coimtries ? How can trade with them be carried on by 
water ? About half the people are farmers. How do these countries 
rank in the production of wheat ? (Fig. 2). Of rye ? (Fig. 35). Of 
barley? (Fig. 35). Where is the principal manufacturing region? 
What are the chief manufactures ? Locate the following cities and 
tell for what each is noted : Vienna ; Budapest; Prague. Why is 
the trade of these countries largely with northern Europe ? The 
leading imports are cotton, coal, silk, wool, copper, machinery, and 
kerosene. Which of these can they buy from the United States ? 
They sell to us flax, sugar, glassware, china, wool, and hides. What 
are the facilities of these countries for trade ■with Roumania and the 
Balkan States ? With Italy and the Mediterranean countries ? 

Roumania .—About how much of Roiunania is mountainous 
(LXIV)' ? How much is plain ? What are the chief products of 
the mountains ? Of the plains ? What extraordinary advantages 
has this country for commerce ? Immense quantities of wheat are 
shipped through the Roiunanian ports. Where does it come from ? 
Where does most of it go ? Why is the trade of the Roiunanian ports 
under the control of an International Commission ? What mineral 
product of Roumania is in great demand ? 

Written Work.—1. On outline map of Central Europe place the chief cities 
and railroads of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Roumania. Write a 
statement about each manufacturing city. 

60. Russia, Poland, and the Baltic States.—What is the area 
of the countries of the Russian Plain ? Surface ? Climate ? 
Mineral wealth? Forests? Population? (See Table, p. 14.) 



300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 

I I I I I I I I I I ip I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I 


WORLD’S BYE CROP 
IN KELEION BUSHELS 

AVERAGE ANNUAL CROP FOR FIVE YEARS 
TOTAL AVERAGE ANNUAL CROP 
1749 MILLION BUSHELS 


UNITED STATES 


OTHER COUNTRIES 


FlO. 3S. 


Products of the soil ? What are the chief pursuits of the people ? 
Nine-tenths of the people are farmers. Russia is the greatest grain¬ 
raising coimtry in the world. (Compare Figs. 2, 4, 35, 36.) The 
manufacturing is done mostly in a few large cities ; it consists chiefly 
of cotton goods, articles of leather, wood, steel, clay, and paper, 
chemicals, tobacco, and sugar. Home manufacturers nearly supply 
the home market. What do you know of government and education 
in Russia ? What are the peculiarities of its internal trade (LXIII, 
3) ? The trade of the country is mainly domestic. Germany and 
Great Britain have about half the Russian trade. What is its trade 
with China (LXIII, 6) ? With what nation is its chief maritime 
trade ? What are the amounts of its exports and imports (Table 
VI) ? How do they compare ? What is its trade with us ? Russia 
sells us hides, wool, hemp, and flax, and buys cotton, copper, and 
farm machinery, which is the best in the world (Table III). What 



Fic. 36 . 


WjORLD’S BARLEY CROP 
I]} MILLION BUSHELS 
AVERAGE [annual CROP FOR FIVE YEARS 
TOTaIl average annual CROP 
■ MILLION BUSHELS 


is its chief commercial city (LXIII, 8) ? What is the character of 
the surface of Poland (LXIII, 10). Its principal waterway? Ex¬ 
ports ? Imports ? What are the racial characteristics of the people 
of Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithuania ? For what industries is Moscow 
noted ? Warsaw ? Odessa ? Kief ? Archangel ? Astrakhan ? Riga ? 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Europe write our exports to Russia 
and our imports. 2. Locate the chief cities and write a statement about each. 


South America. 


61. Physical Features. —(Review Map Studies). Compare 
the Atlantic and Pacific slopes as to extent and rivers. Which 
slope has the greater commercial advantages? Why? What 
products are brought down the Amazon ? The Orinoco ? 
The La Plata? How are goods transported from the Andes 
plateaus to the coast (LIH)? Which coast is more productive? 
Why ? Compare the climates of the eastern and western coasts 
at the equator; at the tropic of Capricorn; at 10°South latitude. 
Account for the difference. Describe the climate of the Andes 
Highland ; of the Selvas ; of the Pampas. What is the effect on 
products? 

Commerce is greatly hindered by natural impediments to transportation. 
Among these are poor harbors, mountain ranges cut by swift streams and 
gorges, unhealthy coast plains, and interior marshes. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of South America write the leading plants 
cultivated; the leading minerals. 2. On another map draw the navigable rivers, and 
name them. 

62. The People of South America. —About 80^ of the 
people of South America can neither read nor write. Most of 
the inhabitants of the interior are wild Indians. How does 
intelligence affect production ? Why will an intelligent farmer 
raise more and better crops than an ignorant one? Name some 
occupations that ignorant laborers can not engage in. 

The people of South America have republican forms of 
government, but ambitious leaders keep them disturbed by civil 
wars. In what ways does this disturb production ? Good wagon 
roads are found along the coast, but in the interior the roads are 
chiefly mule paths. Numerous lines of railroad run from coast 
towns for short distances into the interior, but the great heart 
of the continent, e.xcept in Argentina, is still a wilderness. 
































SOUTH AMERICA. 


23 


The La Plata countries and Brazil have been greatly helped by foreign 
immigration and foreign capital. Nearly 2,000,000 Europeans have come 
to these countries during the last twenty-five years, and have built up impor¬ 
tant manufacturing industries. British, French or German capitalists 
control the more important railroads, mines, and the larger farming and 
stock-raising industries. What have you learned about the people of South 
America (L. 5)? 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of the occupations that a person who does not 
know how to read and write cannot engage in. What does this show about the value 
of education? 2. Write a paragraph on the races of South America. 

63. Our Trade Relations with South America. —In our 
trade with the countries of South America we can see the effects 
of distance and of poor transportation. From Table VI find 
our share of the foreign trade of Venezuela; of Colombia; of 
Brazil; of Argentina, Chile, and Peru. How does distance seem 
to affect it? What is the latitude of New York? Of Rio? 
How much farther east is the latter port ? Measure the distance 
from Para to Europe ; to New York; notice that South America 
is about as near to Europe as to the United States. 

But a great hindrance to our trade with South America is the 
lack of regular and frequent steamship-service. Fifty European 
vessels to one American vessel enter the ports of Rio and Val¬ 
paraiso. The South American merchant ordering goods from 
Europe is sure of their prompt delivery; but he may have to 
wait a month before receiving them from the United States. 
The European merchant also allows him a longer time in which 
to pay for them. 

South America needs our manufactured goods and we need the raw 
products and foods of her tropical countries. Many of these now go first to 
Europe and are then brought to us, thereby increasing the cost. Many 
American goods also, destined for South American ports, are first car¬ 
ried to Europe and then forwarded to their destination. This is because 
there is better service between Europe and the United States and between 
Europe and South America than there is between the United States and 
South America. Thus both our exports and imports are carried at the 
greatest disadvantage. It is also said by our consuls residing in South 
America that American merchants fail to secure trade because they do not 
prepare goods according to the tastes and needs of the South American 
people. Circulars and labels that are put on goods are printed in English, 
a language which the people cannot read. What languages should be used ? 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of all the things which hinder our trade with 
South America and tell how each affects trade. 

64. Brazil.—Describe the location and physical features of 
Brazil (LI). Compare with the United States as to size and 
population. What are the products of the coast plain ? The 
highlands? The Amazon Valley? In what parts of Brazil do 
you find stock (Phys. Map, S. America)? Are there many harbors 
along the coast ? What ports have railroads leading inland (Pol. 
Map, S. America). These roads bring the beef, hides, cotton, coffee, 
and other products of the coast and highland regions to the sea¬ 
board. Many of these coast towns have developed manufacturing. 

Cottons, woolens, silks, and carpets are made at Rio, Nictheroy, Maran- 
hao, Porto Allegre, and Rio Grande do Sul. There are numerous sugar 
mills and a few refineries in Campos, Bahia, and Pernambuco. Flour, 
leather goods, and articles of wood are made at various places. 

Most of the people of Brazil are engaged in agriculture. 
The cultivated lands are almost entirely within a few hundred 
miles of the coast. Coffee and sugar are the leading products. 
Cotton, hides, cocoa, tobacco, are next in value. 

What other farm and forest products come from Brazil ? What of its 
mineral wealth ? Coal and petroleum are both found, but are mined in small 


quantities. Gold and diamonds are the most valuable mineral products. 
Monazite sand, used in making mantles for incandescent electric lights, is a 
growing export. Besides coffee, rubber, and sugar, Brazil sends to the 
United States, dyes, nuts, cocoa, and hides. Our largest exports to that 
country are wheat flour, kerosene, machinery, and hardware. Besides these, 
lard and bacon, scientific apparatus, cottons, cotton-seed oil, and engines are 
most important. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of South America write the chief productions 
of Brazil and the leading towns and seaports. 2. On a similar map write our 
exports to and our imports from that country. 3. On outline map of the world 
shade the coffee-growing countries (see index under coffee). 

65. Coffee and Rubber are the chief products of Brazil, 
forming five-sixths of the total exports of the country. The 
eastern slopes of the Brazilian Andes are the richest coffee 
region in the world. The soil is a reddish volcanic ash, rich 
in iron, which seems necessary to successful coffee culture. 

The original home of the coffee tree was in Yemen, in Southern Arabia, 
where Mocha, the most expensive variety, is still grown. The tree is an ever¬ 
green growing to the height of about 25 feet if left to itself, but it is pruned 
down to grow as a spreading shrub to an average height of ten feet. Itgrows 
only in the tropics, and best on well-watered mountain sides. It cannot 
endure the hot sun, and so on the lower mountain levels is cultivated in the 
shade of larger trees. The fruit is a berry of the size and appearance of a 
cranberry. It contains usually two "beans," which are removed by crushing 
or " pulping” the fruit when ripe. The coffee beans are then dried in the 
sun for a few days, after which the seed coats which cover them are removed 
by machinery. The coffee is then graded according to size by allowing it 
to roll down a tube or sieve pierced with holes of different sizes. But the 
quality does not depend on size alone. The full-rounded beans are the best. 
In Arabia and Turkey skilled workmen sort the coffee by hand, the best 
grades of hand-sorted coffee often bringing four or five dollars a pound. 
Coffee is put up in bags of 132 pounds each and is then ready for export. 
What part of the world's supply of coffee does Brazil produce ? 

The name “ India-rubber ” indicates what was once the chief 
source and use of this substance. An American named Charles 
Goodyear discovered in 1842 a way of hardening rubber by 
melting sulphur with it so that it could be worked into any 
form desired. This process is called “ vulcanizing,’* and was the 
beginning of one of the greatest of our manufacturing industries. 

Where is rubber obtained (index) ? The chief industry of the Amazon 
is rubber-gathering. The men go in boats up the river and its branches to the 
rubber groves. The trees are gashed with a hatchet and a cup put under¬ 
neath the wound to catch the milky juice which slowly oozes out. When a 
quantity of the sap is obtained it is taken to the camp and coagulated. This is 
done by dipping a wooden paddle in the juice and then holding it in the smoke 
from burning palm nuts. The juice thickens and changes to the familiar 
reddish-brown of rubber. The paddle is then dipped again and again until 
a coating of rubber weighing several pounds adheres to it. This is then cut 
through on one side and removed. The rubber is taken by boats to Para or 
Manaos, where it sells for about fifty-five cents a pound. The usual annual 
product of Brazil is about 36,000 tons, half of which is exported to the 
United States. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of the world indicate by shading the 
coffee-growing regions. 2. In the same way indicate rubber-producing regions. 
(See maps and index.) 

66. The Guiana Colonies and Venezuela. —What nations 
own the Guiana colonies (LI) ? Describe the surface and 
climate; animal life ; productions and exports. The climate of 
these colonies is too unhealthy for Europeans, and the work 
on the plantation is done by negroes. Cane sugar has long been 
the chief product, but the fall in price due to the competition of 
beet sugar has compelled many planters to raise coffee, cocoa, 
tobacco, and rice instead. 





24 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


The low strip of coast is the only cultivated land; back of this is a rough, 
mountainous country where considerable gold is washed out of the sandy 
beds of mountain streams. Our imports from the Guianas are cocoa, 
sugar, and small amounts of coffee and phosphate rock. We sell them 
flour, meat, cloth, kerosene, steel, and manufactures of wood. 

Venezuela lies mainly in the Orinoco Valley. Describe the sur¬ 
face of the other parts. The country is largely forest-covered 
and unexplored. The northern highlands about Caracas and 
Valencia are the chief farming region. What are the two lead¬ 
ing products (LI) ? Many cattle are raised on the llanos. The 
hides are the most valuable part of the animal and are exported. 
What metals are mined ? Next to coffee, cacao, hides, and skins, 
asphalt is the largest export. For what is asphalt used } Rubber, 
cabinet and dyewoods, vanilla, and copaiba balsam, a valuable 
medicine, are obtained from the forests. 

As in the case of other South American countries, civil wars have retarded 
the growth of population and industries. How many people are there to the 
square mile in Venezuela Compare with the United States. What are the 
chief cities ? They are built on the highlands at a distance from the sea 
and are connected with the nearest ports by short lines of railroad. The 
United States has half of Venezuela’s trade, buying most of her coffee and 
asphalt and selling her cotton, butter, lard, hams, flour, kerosene, and lumber. 

Written Work. —i. On an outline map of Venezuela, locate chief towns and 
products. 2. On an outline map of South America write our imports from Venezuela 
and out exports to that country. 

67. Colombia. —In what natural divisions of the continent 
does Colombia lie (LII, 4) ? How do the Andes affect the 
climate and vegetation (LII, 5)? How do they affect trans¬ 
portation ? What are the products of each natural section ? 
The plateaus along the Cauca and Magdalena rivers are the 
most valuable and healthful parts of the country. The climate 
and products of these plateaus are those of the temperate zone. 
Along the coasts, sugar, coffee, cacao, and fruits are grown. The 
mountain regions are rich in minerals. Coal and iron occur 
together near Bogota and have given rise to iron industries. 
But the cities of Colombia cannot use home coal, for it costs 
more to bring it from the mines on the backs of mules than to 
import it from the United States. 

A large part of Colombia is in the upper Amazon Valley. Much of it 
is forest-covered, yielding the same products as Venezuela. The llanos 
also extend into Colombia, where many cattle are raised, and leather and 
shoes are made from the hides at Barranquilla. Cattle, hides, "jerked ” beef, 
and tobacco are largely exported to the West Indies. Coffee, cocoanuts, 
hides, and bananas are sent to the United States in return for our cottons, 
flour, meats, iron and steel, shoes, coal, and kerosene. What is the entire 
value of Colombia’s foreign trade (Table VI)? What is our share of it? 
What is the density of population? Name some circumstances that interfere 
with production in Colombia. Manufactures are very crude, embracing 
hats, shoes, iron, candles, soap, and liquors. 

Written Work. —i. Draw sketch map and locate chief towns and industries. 
2 . On the trade map write our exports to and imports from Colombia. 

68. Ecuador. —(LIT) This country is crossed by the Andes in 
two lofty ranges. What surface divisions do they make ? Effect 
on climate ? Both the eastern and western slopes are forested, 
also the northern part of the coast plain. Rubber, cinchona, 
ivory, and Brazil nuts are found. The warm lowlands pro¬ 
duce cacao, sugar, and cotton. The mountain slopes yield 
coffee. The plateaus yield grain and fruits, but the cost of 
carrying them down to the coast towns by mules is so great 
that foodstuffs are imported. What minerals are found ? Gold 


is the only metal mined. The only important manufacture is- 
Panama hats, in which the workmen are very expert. 

These are made from a fiber obtained from the midrib of the leaf of the 
screw pine. The fiber is very fine and must be plaited under water, or where 
the air is moist. The hat is woven in one circular piece and then pressed 
into any desired shape. They command a high price, ranging from five to 
fifty dollars each. The name comes from the fact that these hats were first 
imported by way of the Isthmus of Panama. 

Ecuador is the largest producer of cocoa, which forms three- 
fourths of the exports. It is exported mainly to France. Much 
goes also to Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Coffee, 
hides, ivory, nuts, and rubber are other leading exports. Woolen 
and cotton goods are the largest imports from Europe. From 
the United States Ecuador imports lard, cottons, flour, iron and 
steel, and kerosene. 

Transportation is poorly provided for. A railroad is about half completed 
from Guayaquil to Quito. Besides this there are only bridle paths. Trade 
with the United States goes by way of the Panama Canal; with other coun¬ 
tries, by steamer around Cape Horn. 

Written Work.—l. Write on trade map our exports to Ecuador and our 
imports from that country. 2. Write a paragraph on the natural divisions and 
products of Ecuador. 

69. The Cacao "Tree grows best in a warm, moist climate, 
on low grounds where the soil is rich and deep. The region 
near Guayaquil has upwards of 40,000,000 of cacao trees. 
The Island of St. Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea, the Venezuela 
coast, Ceylon, and Java rank next in the production of cacao. 

The tree is an evergreen with smooth leaves, growing to a height of eighteen 
feet. The fruit is a fleshy pod, thicker at the center than at the ends. It has 
five cells, each of which contains from twenty to thirty thick, almond-shaped 
seeds. The preparation for market consists in removing the seeds from the 
pods and burying them in green leaves, where they are allowed to ferment 
for a week. The heat of fermentation removes a bitter taste and prevents 
the seeds from sprouting. They are then dried and rubbed to remove any 
gummy matter which adheres to them. The seed coats when removed are 
“ cocoa shells ” and are used for making the drink called “cocoa.” The 
beans contain an oil which is extracted by heating and forms a nutritious^ 
food known as " cocoa butter.” When the beans are ground to a dry pow¬ 
der we have cocoa. When ground with sugar and pressed into cakes the 
product is called “chocolate.” 

All forms of cocoa are valuable foods and much used in 
tropical countries. Spain, France, Portugal, and the United 
States are also large consumers. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of the world shade all the regions produ¬ 
cing cacao. 2. Write on the uses of the products of the cacao-tree. 

70. Peru.—(Review LII I.) What is the size and population of 
Peru ? Density of population ? Half the people are native 
Indians. Describe the climate. Why is the coast region rain¬ 
less? Cotton, coffee, and sugar are cultivated with the help of 
irrigation. What have you learned about Peruvian cotton (lo)? 
The products of the plateaus and forests resemble those of 
Ecuador. What do you know of the mines of Peru ? The 
entire products of the mines are worth many millions of dollars 
annually. Most metals are exported in the ore, to be smelted 
and refined in foreign countries. What does this teach us of 
the civilization of the Peruvians ? What are the important rail¬ 
roads of Peru (see map of South America)? They connect the 
seaport towns with the mines and farming centers of the interior. 

A plant peculiar to this part of South America is the coca shrub. 
A medicine, cocaine, much used at present in surgical operations, is made 




SOUTH AMERICA. 


2S 


from it and is exported. What animal furnishes an article of export? 
Guano is gathered on the Island of Lobos near the coast. Straw hats, cotton 
and woolen cloth, boots and shoes, and other common necessities are manu¬ 
factured at Lima and Cuzco. 

The native Indians of the Amazon Valley ship large quantities of rubber 
down the river from Iquitos. Cinchona, dyes, and medicinal plants are also 
gathered in the forests. 

Peru has her largest trade with Great Britain and Germany, the United 
States standing third. Find what part of Peru’s trade we have (Table VI). 
Her chief exports to this country are sugar, cotton, coca, wool, hides, and 
guano. She imports from the United States machinery, lumber, flour, 
wagons, cars, and kerosene. 

Written Work.—I. On an outline map of Peru locate the chief cities and the 
railroads. 2. On trade map write our exports to Peru and our imports from that 
country. 


are chiefly cottons, kerosene, iron and steel goods, lumber, farming tools, and 
machinery. 

Written Work.—l. Make a sketch map of Chile and locate the railroads, sea¬ 
ports, and cities ; write a statement about the trade of each port. 2. On trade map. 
write our exports to Chile and our imports from that country. 

73 - Argentina is the chief farming and stock-raising country 
of South America. It has the most railroads and the largest 
commerce. In manufactures it stands next to Brazil. How 
does the lack of coal and water-power affect them ? Describe 
the surface (LIV). Climate. The rainfall, except in the north¬ 
east, is light, much of the soil requiring irrigation. Explain this: 
How does Argentina rank in sheep (Fig. 37)? Cattle (Fig. p)? 
Wool (Fig. 38) ? Wheat (Fig. 2) ? 


71. Bolivia has fertile prairies in the southeast and dense for¬ 
ests in the north. Describe the highland region (LI 11 ). By 
what two river systems may Bolivian commerce reach the sea? 
By what two railroads? Besides these, pack-trains of mules and 
llamas carry ores to the railway in Argentina whence they are 
exported by way of Buenos Aires. Mining is the leading 
industry. What metals are found ? Borax is gathered from 
the Ascotdn lakes in the southwest, and some gold, bis¬ 
muth, and antimony are found. 

The plateau regions, where three-fourths of the people live, produce 
corn, wheat, barley, fruits, and vegetables. The country about Tarija 
is a very garden, and noted for large crops. From the forests of the 
North increasing amounts of rubber, cinchona bark, and coca are sent 
down the Amazon to Para, and stock-raising is increasing oji the east¬ 
ern plains. The Bolivians are few in number and poor, and English 
and German money, skill, and machinery carry on the mining opera¬ 
tions. Trade is hindered by high freights, and consists in the exchange 
of ores and metals for cotton and woolen goods, machinery, and hard¬ 
ware. No goods from Bolivia reach the United States, except through 
other countries, and we sell her, directly only, a small amount of cotton 
cloth and hardware. 


About 30,000,000 cattle and 75,000,000 sheep are pastured on the pampas. 
The public lands are sold in large tracts to the ranchmen, who divide it into 
sections and fence it with wire. A few men can thus take care of large 
herds. The ranch owners are mostly Englishmen and Scotchmen. The 
best cows are kept for dairy purposes. The best beef cattle are shipped alive 


10 


20 


30 


50 


60 


70 


80 8S 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1, 1 1 ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

. J 1 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

* 1 


--' i i I'".: A .■ .^ 

--- -4 .Li’.g.... 





SHEEP OF THE 
LEADING COUNTRIES 
IN MILLION HEAD 


Fig. 37. 


Written Work.—i. Write a paragraph on the trade routes of Bolivia. 2. On out¬ 
line map locate the cities and productions. 

72. Chile is, next to Argentina, the most progressive of South 
American countries. What minerals are produced ? Copper is 
the chief metal. Give rank of Chile in copper production 
(Fig. 13). Gold, sulphur, silver, guano, and coal are found. 
But nitrate of soda is the most valuable mineral deposit. What 
do you know of this (LIII)? 

The nitrate deposits lie near the surface in the desert of Atacama. It is 
broken up by blasts introduced below the beds. It is refined by dissolving 
the crude rock in hot water from which the pure nitrate of soda crystallizes 
in cooling. Iodine, a drug used in medicine and photography, is obtained 
from the liquid left after crystallization. 

The long, narrow valley of Central Chile is one of the most 
fertile regions in the world, and supports three-fourths of the 
entire population. Large numbers of horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, 
and goats are raised. The grains of the temperate zones, fruits, 
and vegetables flourish. Southern Chile has large forests, and 
vehicles and furniture are made. What other manufactures has 
Chile (LIII, ii)? Chile has fine highways, nearly 4,000 miles of 
railroads, and about 700 miles of navigable rivers. How does 
she rank in foreign trade (Table V) ? How does the balance of 
trade stand ? 

Our imports from Chile are mainly nitrate of soda, wool, copper, and lead. 
The nitrate is used in making fertilizers and chemicals, such as niter and 
washing and baking soda. Gunpowder is made from niter, sulphur, and 
charcoal. How do our imports compare in value with our exports ? These 


to Europe. Fat sheep and lambs are also sent in the same way. But the- 
live animals are only equal to one-sixteenth of the frozen and dried beef 
exported. The largest refrigerating plant for meat in the world is at Buenos 
Aires. A million carcasses of beef and three million of sheep are frozen and 
exported annually. 

Wheat, corn, flax, and sugar are the chief farm crops. The 
production of grain increases and stock-raising diminishes as 
the population grows. Argentina has mines and forests in the 
far north where railroads have not yet reached. A small 
amount only of gold, silver, and copper- is mined, and some 
cabinet wood is exported. Manufactures are mainly grain sacks, 
leather, te.xtiles, and hats. Structural iron is made and some 
sugar is refined. 

Argentina imports textiles, clothing, pottery, glass, and machinery from 
Great Britain and Germany. From the United States she receives farming 
machinery, oil, lumber, twine, wire, railroad supplies, tools, and hardware. 
Next to animal products and wheat, flaxseed and sugar are important exports. 
We buy of Argentina raw wool, hides, goatskins, and the bones, horns, and 
hoofs of the cattle slaughtered. What use do we make of these things ? 

The Falklayid Islands belong to Great Britain. They produce 
a nutritious grass for cattle called “ tussac grass.” Cattle, horses, 
and sheep are extensively raised. The exports are wool, hides, 
skins, and leather. These are exchanged with the mother coun¬ 
try for manufactured goods. 

Written Work.—l. On outline map of Argentina place the navigable rivers, 
railroads, important cities and ports. 2. Make a production map locating leading 
products and industries. 3. On outline trade map fill in our exports to and 
our imports from Argentina. 





























26 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


74. Uruguay and Paraguay, —(Review LIV.) Uruguay is a 
level, fertile plain with abundant navigable waterways. Graz¬ 
ing is the chief industry, though agriculture is increasing. 
Wheat, flax, and the vine are cultivated. The wool product 
exceeds a hundred million pounds, and is the largest export. 
Seven-eighths of the total exports are animal products. What is 
their value (Table VI)? What is the value of the imports? 
We sell to Uruguay, oil, naval stores, cotton cloth, and many 
small wares. 

A German company has an immense establishment at Fray 
Bentos for the manufacture of beef extract. “ Jerked ” beef is 
the largest meat export, but salted and refrigerated beef and 
mutton are increasing in amount. The flour and grain export is 
in value next to that of animal products. 

There are no manufactures of importance, and Uruguay imports various 
foods, tobacco, textiles, clothing, and iron and steel goods. From the United 
■States she imports farm tools, oil, cloth, and lumber, and sells to us the same 
products that we receive from Argentina. What is their value ? 

Paraguay is a rich farming and fruit-growing region. De¬ 
scribe its transportation facilities ; its soil; climate ; products. 
What are the exports? Tobacco, manioc, sugar, and oranges 
are leading products. 

Mat6 is a product peculiar to Paraguay. The shrub from which the 
leaves are obtained resembles a small orange tree. The leaves are 
roasted and pounded into powder. This is sewed up in hides and ex¬ 
ported to the neighboring countries to the annual value of about a million 
dollars. 

Our exports to Paraguay consist of hardware, kerosene, 
and canvas; our imports are hides and vegetable extracts. 
■Asuncion is connected by rail with Buenos Aires and Montevideo, 
and goods are also shipped to these ports by way of the Parana 
and Plata rivers. The manufactures of Paraguay are leather, 
furniture, cigars, and earthenware. Spirits are distilled from the 
juice of the sugar cane. England furnishes half the imports. 
What is our share of them ? 

Written Work.—l. On an outline map show the rivers, railroads, and towns of 
Paraguay and Uruguay. 2. Write on trade map our exports to and our imports 
from these countries. 3. On outline map of the world shade the chief cattle-raising 
-countries. 

Asia. 

75. Physical Features. —(Review Map Studies and LXIV.) 
How does Asia compare in area and number of inhabitants with 
the other continents ? The interior is so elevated and so far from 
the sea that it receives too little rain to 'grow crops. A large 
part of it is a desert and the rest thinly settled. Describe the 
northern part of the continent. The bulk of the people live on 
the eastern and southern coasts, which receive abundant moisture 
from the monsoons (XI, 5). These coasts are deeply indented 
by numerous seas which afford inland waterways for ships and 
have led to an extensive coasting trade. Chinese junks throng 
these seas and ascend far up the rivers. The valleys along these 
rivers are the most fertile parts of Asia and furnish nearly all the 
vegetable products that the people of Asia have to sell. Locate 
-eight of the river valleys of Asia and name some of the prod¬ 
ucts of each. (Physical Map.) The plateaus and desert re¬ 
gions of the interior form about a third of the continent. 


These are not only unproductive, but they separate the produc¬ 
tive regions and act as barriers to commerce. Name three of 
the deserts; four of the plateaus. 

The land of Central and Northern Asia slopes gently toward the Arctic 
Ocean. But as this ocean and the rivers emptying into it are blocked with 
ice during the greater part of the year, there is no outlet for trade in this 
direction. Much of the dry interior is basin-shaped. How does this affect 
the drainage? What do you know of the salt lakes of this region (LXV, 3)? 

The chief mineral regions are among the Caucasus, Ural, Altai, and Peling 
mountains. Locate each of these ranges and name the minerals found in 
each. 

Where are the “Steppes” of Asia? What do they produce (LXV)? What 
are the Monsoons (LXVI) ? What are the disadvantages of a wet and a dry 
season? How does the direction of mountains affect the climate of Central 
and Southern Asia? The vast chains of continental islands bordering Asia are 
a part of that continent and of equal importance with the mainland. Name 
some of these islands. They are very productive and are more progressive than 
many of the countries of the mainland. 

Written Work.—On outline map of Asia draw the rivers and mountain ranges 
and write the leading productions of each country. 

76. People, Industries, Commerce.—(Review LXVI.) Asia is 
the home of the oldest civilized nations of the world. They have, 
however, for many centuries been unprogressive. This has been 
due in part to the physical barriers which separate them from 
each other and from other continents, and in part to their 
observance of ancient customs and religions. What races are 
found in Asia? What religions prevail? Which three nations 
lead in civilization in Asia? Industries are not highly advanced 
among the people of Asia. Nine-tenths of them are farmers. 
Methods of cultivation and farming utensils are rude and clumsy, 
except in some of the European colonies where modern methods 
have been introduced. 

China, India, and Western Asia have since the earliest times 
been famous for the manufacture of silk and woolen goods, 
carpets, rugs, and a great variety of metal work. But their 
methods of hand-manufacture have been so far surpassed by 
modern machinery that the nations of Asia instead of selling 
textiles to Europe are now buying them from that continent and 
from America. 

In spite of their methods of production and difficulties of transportation 
Asia has always had an .extensive inland and foreign commerce. What do 
you know of this commerce (LXVII, 4; LXX, 3 ; LXXI, i; LXXIII, 3) ? What 
about methods of transportation? How has transportation been improved in 
recent times? What railroads now connect Asia with Europe? Trace the 
route from Hankau to Petrograd; from Central Asia to Petrograd. 
India has a very extensive railroad system with more miles of track than any 
other country of Asia. Why does the foreign trade of countries having rail¬ 
roads exceed that of countries having none ? 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of the countries of Asia, of the races inhabiting 
each, of the religions of each and the leading occupations in each. 

77. China and dependencies.—(Review LXVII.) Of what 
does China consist? Compare it with the United States in area 
and population. What is the character of the Chinese? How 
do they rank in education ? Describe the surface, minerals, 
occupations, and productions. What are the two great staple 
products and e.xports? Compare China with the other countries 
in the extent of its coal fields; in the production of coal (Fig. 
11). China has many roads traversing the country in every 
direction, but they are in such bad condition that wheelbarrows, 
carts, and mules are the only means of transportation that can 





ASIA. 


27 


be used. About 6,000 miles of railway are now in operation, and 
telegraph lines extend from Pekin into every part of the country. 
A large trade is carried on between China proper and the 
provinces of Tibet, Mongolia, and Sin-Kiang; tea, rice, beans, 
and manufactured goods are exchanged for metals, animals, silk, 
wool, and cotton. What do you know of the caravan trade ? 

What are the leading manufactures of China? For what 
inventions are they famous ? Owing to foreign competition the 
Chinese have been forced to make use of modern machinery. 
Cotton mills are now in operation at Canton and Shanghai; 
machines for reeling silk (silk filatures) are used in many places, 
and ovens for curing tea are taking the place of hand labor. 
Near Hankau is a rolling mill which turns out 300 steel rails per 
day. Flour and rice mills are taking the place of the old hand 
machinery for grinding. 

What do you know of the foreign trade of China? Forty-three ports now 
admit foreign ships. Commercial nations have been eager to trade with 
China because her large population furnishes a market for low-priced goods, 
and the development of her natural resources will supply the people with 
money to buy them. Silk and tea are the chief exports from China, but she 
also sells raw cotton, wool, beans, hides and skins, opium, straw matting, 
and paper. Each of these products comes to this country. Her largest pur¬ 
chases from us are cotton cloths, kerosene, tobacco, and lumber. Great 
Britain has the largest share of the Chinese trade. What part of China’s 
exports do we buy ? What part of her imports do we sell to her (Table VI)? 
Russia buys about one-half the tea exported. By what routes does it go 
{LXVII) ? Fully one-half the total exports and imports by the Chinese are 
handled by British merchants through the port of Hong-Kong. This is the 
British crown colony at the mouth of the Canton River. It includes a small 
island and part of the mainland. Hong-Kong is the most important port in 
the East and one of the greatest in the world. It is a naval and coaling sta¬ 
tion and a free port, no duties being collected on goods passing through it. 

Written Work. —i. On outline map of Asia write the leading productions of 
■China and locate the chief cities. 2. On a similar map write our exports to and 
our imports from China. 

78. Silk and Tea were first cultivated in China. The art of 
weaving silk is said to have been known there 4.500 years ago. 
Since the worm which spins the fiber feeds only upon the leaves 
of the mulberry tree, silk culture is confined to those places 
where the mulberry grows. The worms are hatched and fed 
under cover, as.cold or wet weather causes them to spin a poor 
quality of fiber. They attain their full size in about six weeks 
and at once begin to spin. The worm coils the fiber about its 
body until a complete covering, or cocoon, is formed. The 
cocoons are plunged into hot water to kill the pupa which 
would otherwise eat its way out and spoil the cocoon. 

In reeling the fiber, the cocoons are placed in warm water to 
dissolve the gummy substance of the outer covering. The 
fibers of several cocoons are then united until a thread of 
sufficient strength is formed. This is wound into hanks or 
skeins and in this form is known as “raw silk.” A single 
cocoon furnishes about a thousand yards of fiber. Silk culture 
requires much labor and skill. Hence silk is produced only in 
those countries where the population is dense and labor cheap. 
Those who engage in this work are carefully trained to it from 
childhood. What countries produce silk? What countries 
import and manufacture it ? Where do we get our supply ? 
Which of our cities manufacture it ? 

Tea consists of the dried leaves of the tea plant, a hardy 
shrub growing from ten to twenty feet in height. It is a native 
of Asia and has been under cultivation in China for 1,500 


years. The quality of tea depends upon the age of the leaves 
when picked and the manner of curing. The old withered 
leaves and small twigs make the cheapest variety. The differ¬ 
ence between “ black” and “green ” teas comes from the manner 
of curing. In this process the leaves are first dried slightly and 
then rolled and heated to cause fermentation. If now they are 
dried quickly in ovens the product is green tea; but if dried 
slowly or in the sun the leaves turn black. During the drying 
the leaves are rolled or twisted and curled, giving them the 
appearance that is so familiar. What countries produce tea 
(index)? What countries import tea most largely (index) ? 

Written Work.— i. On outline map of the world color the tea-growing regions. 
2. On a similar map color the silk producing countries. 

79 - British India.—(Review LXX.) What are the three 
natural divisions of India? How does it compare with the 
United States in size? In population ? What do you know of 
the character of the people? Their manufactures? Their civ¬ 
ilization ? What are the chief agricultural products? Mineral 
products? Nine-tenths of the people are farmers. The Ganges 
valley is the most productive section, furnishing rice, jute, and 
opium for export. Cotton flourishes in the rich black soil of 
the Dekkan. Large crops of tea are produced in the uplands 
of the North. Wheat and millet are raised everywhere. Cotton, 
woolen, jute, and paper goods are the most important modern 
manufactures. The Indian cotton has too short a staple to 
rival the American upland in the world’s markets and is made 
into cloth mainly at Bombay, for the home trade. Jute is made 
into coarse cloth (gunny cloth) and bags for wrapping bales of 
cotton and wool and for holding grain and seed. 'Calcutta is the 
center of the jute industries. Gunny cloth and bags are the 
largest export to the United States. How has internal com¬ 
merce been rapidly developed in India (LXX, 4) ? The 
rainfall of India is very uncertain in large sections. Over 
3,000 square miles of land are irrigated. Yet crops often fail 
and famines occur. What is the value of India’s foreign trade 
(Table VI)? Why is our share of it so small—only one-sixteenth 
of the imports? 

The food products of India proper are mostly consumed at home. Wheat, 
however, is a large export, rice and millet being the staple grain foods. The 
teas of India and Ceylon, owing to cheaper methods of production, have largely 
driven Chinese teas out of European markets. The rivalry of the blue dyes 
made from coal tar has made the production of indigo less profitable. The 
cottons of India have a large sale in China and other parts of Asia. Where 
is the opium sold (LXX) ? Describe the trade with the United States. Where 
is tin obtained ? Spices ? There is no trade in animal products, as the 
religion of the people forbids their use. Milk is used, and the hides are 
exported or made into leather, but the fat and flesh are pollution to the 
Brahman. Cotton cloth and kerosene are our chief exports to India. Great 
Britain, China and Germany have the most of the Indian trade. 

Written Work.—l. On outline map of India draw the Indus and Ganges Rivers 
and write the chief productions of the country. 2. Locate the leading cities and tell 
for what each is noted. 3. On outline map of Asia write our exports to India and 
our imports from that country. 

80. Japan.—(Review LXVIII.) Of what does Japan consist ? 
Describe the coast; the surface; the climate. Compare with 
Great Britain in size and population. What is the character of 
the people? What are the farm products? The minerals? 
What do you know of the productions and trade of Formosa? 
Of Korea? The Japanese are famous sailors. They have one of 
the best navies in the world. How do they rank in shipping 






28 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(Fig. 2i)? Japan, like China, is a large exporter of silk, tea, rice, 
paper, laequer goods, and chinaware; but, unlike China, she 
is rapidly coming to manufacture the greater part of the goods 
needed for home use. Cannon, small arms, and steel ships are 
some of the larger products. But textile goods, boots and shoes, 
clothing, glass, hardware, scientific instruments, clocks, watches, 
medicines, and bicycles are only a few of the multitude of arti¬ 
cles now produced by the “Yankees of the East.” A thorough 
system of schools and colleges provides for education, and thou¬ 
sands of young men and women are sent abroad to learn the best 
there is in the institutions of foreign countries. 

The commerce of Japan has increased fivefold in twenty 
years. What is the value of her exports? Of her imports? What 
is the share of the United States in each ? Raw cotton from 
America is her largest import and raw silk sold to America is the 
largest export. 

Japan manufactures the cotton into yarn and cheap grades of cloth for trade 
with China and Southern Asia, in return for which she buys rice, sugar, 
tobacco, and beans. Copper is largely exported to Great Britain and the 
United States. What is the rank of Japan in copper (Fig. 13) ? Japan is 
poor in other minerals. She imports iron and steel goods from Germany, 
Great Britain, and the United States; locomotives, railroad supplies, machinery, 
and telegraphic and other electrical apparatus are the chief items. She also 
imports from this country kerosene, flour, paraffin, and tobacco. Besides 
silk, our imports from Japan are tea, matting, camphor, rice, copper, and 
chinaware. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Asia locate the chief ports, cities and 
productions of Japan. 2. On a similar map write our imports from Japan and our 
exports to that country. 

81. Indo-China.—(LXIX.) What does Indo-China include? 
Which part belongs to England? To France? Which is inde¬ 
pendent? What is the population? What are the agricultural 
products? The forest products? Gamboge (physical map) is the 
hardened sap of a tree and makes a yellow dye. The civilization 
of the countries of Indo-China has not advanced beyond the agri¬ 
cultural stage. Farming, fishing, and lumbering are the leading 
occupations. Rice is the only export of importance. Burma, 
Siam, and Cochin-China are the largest rice-exporting countries in 
the world. Their product is sold mainly to France, China, and 
Japan. The teakwood forests along the Menam River and the 
rubber groves along theSalwen furnish the second largest export. 
Pepper, spices, sugar, cotton, and tobacco are also exported. 
The Malay States lead in the production of tin. This is shipped 
from Singapore, the chief tin market in the world, and next to 
Hongkong the most important seaport in Asia. Its exports are 
valued at $200,000,000 annually and includes opiums, spices, 
woods, and gambier, a vegetable extract used in tanning. Rice 
is the largest import of Singapore and is carried to many parts 
of the world. Cotton, tobacco, fish, coral, and petroleum are also 
large imports. All these goods are re-exported. The United 
States imports tin, hides, spices, gambier, shellac, and indigo from 
Indo-China and exports to that part of the world kerosene, cot¬ 
tons, machinery, and tobacco. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Indo-China locate the chief cities, rivers 
and products. 2. On a similar map write our exports to and our imports from that 
country. 

82. Russian Asia.—The Russian possessions include nearly 
half the continent of Asia. (Review LXXII, 4-7.) Describe the 
northern third of Siberia (LXV, 2). Fossil ivory is the only 
product. What two products are obtained in the central third? 


Immense pine forests extend nearly across the continent. They 
are not yet used for lumber, but are visited only by hunters in 
search of fur-bearing animals. Southern Siberia contains the 
great grain and stock-raising regions. Large crops of wheat, rye, 
and oats are grown. What animals are raised ? What minerals 
are mined in Siberia? Little attention is paid to any metal but 
gold. Two-thirds of Russia’s gold output comes from Siberia. 
What is its value (Fig. 15)? Where is Azerbaijan? It produces 
all of Russia’s petroleum. How does it rank in this product 
(Fig. 12) ? The oil is pumped from deep wells near Baku. 
Nearly the whole population of that vicinity is engaged in pre¬ 
paring petroleum for market. What are the agricultural prod¬ 
ucts of Georgia? It supplies some cotton and much raw silk 
for the Moscow factories. The people are skilled manufacturers 
of carpets, silks, and metal goods. What is the situation of Rus¬ 
sian Turkestan ? It furnished about one and a half millions bales 
of cotton annually for many great factories at Lodz, Warsaw, 
and Moscow. Its farm industries depend upon irrigation. What 
are its chief cities? For what is Bokhara noted? Khiva, Samar¬ 
kand, Kokan, and Bokhara have long been famous centers for 
caravan trade with the rest of Asia and with Europe. Manufac¬ 
tures in Russian Asia are not yet of great extent, but they are 
increasing so rapidly that it is thought they will soon supply the 
needs of thq country. Since the opening of the Trans-Siberian 
railway several millions of Russians have emigrated from Europe 
to Asia, and have become large consumers of Russia’s manufac¬ 
tured goods, exchanging for them their grain, cattle, cotton, 
wool, and minerals. So high a duty is placed on foreign goods 
that the people are obliged to buy most things of Russia. What 
goods do we sell to Russia ? What do we buy of her (Tables III 
and IV) ? 

Domestic trade has been greatly helped by improved transportations. 
Cotton was formerly carried from Ferghana to Orenburg by caravan, but 
now a railroad has been completed along that route. Trace the route from 
Bokhara to Batum; from Dalny to Petrograd. Internal trade is helped greatly 
by navigation on the Black and Caspian Seas and on the Volga River. The 
Ob and the Irtish are navigable nearly to their sources, and are connected by canal 
with the Yenisei. This secures water communication with Lake Baikal. Cara¬ 
vans from China connect with this route at Maimatchin and Kiakhta. What 
do they carry (LXVI, 4) ? Tomsk and Irkutsk are the most important manu¬ 
facturing cities in Siberia. Flour, leather, and articles of wood are made. 
Vladivostok is the ehief port on the Pacific and has much trade with Europe, 
Japan, Korea, and the United States. We import squirrel skins, ermine, mink 
and other furs, fossil ivory, platinum and precious stones, and we sell farm 
tools, flour, building materials, and steel goods. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Asia write the leading productions of 
Russian Asia; draw the railroads and name the important towns along the routes. 
2. On trade map write our exports to Siberia and our imports from that country. 

83. Persia and Afghanistan.—Persia lies in the western part 
of the high tableland of Central Asia. The surface consists of 
rugged mountains and salt deserts with many fertile valleys and 
plains. There is little rain, but where the mountain streams can 
be used for irrigation, fine crops of wheat, poppies, cotton, 
tobacco, and fruits (LXXI, 3) are grown. How is the water 
obtained (LXXI, 2)? What do you know of the climate? The 
dates of Persia are noted for excellence, and the rose gardens of 
Shiraz furnish the most valuable of perfumes. What minerals 
are found ? Nearly all the turquoise in the world is found near 
Nishapur. The mines of iron, lead, copper, and tin are little worked 
because there is no means of transporting the ore to foreign markets 




AFRICA. 


29 


and no machinery for smelting it at home. Gold, salt, and petroleum 
are produced in small quantities. For what manufactures are the 
Persians noted ? Carpets and rugs are made by hand in nearly 
every part of Persia. Each village has its peculiar patterns and no 
two rugs are made alike. Several years of labor may be needed to 
complete a large carpet. There are valuable pearl fisheries belonging 
to Great Britain near the Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf. 
Thousands of men are employed in this industry and the annual 
product is worth more than $1,000,000. What are the exports of 
Persia (LXXI, 3)? Fruits, raw cotton and wool, silk, opium, rice, 
and carpets are the most valuable. Russia buys the cotton, wool, 
rice, and fruits, and England nearly all the rest of the ex¬ 
ports. 

These two countries are rivals for the Persian trade. There are no rail¬ 
roads in Persia, but goods are carried by carts and caravans from Teheran, 
Tabriz, and the interior trade centers to the Russian frontier on the north 
and to the ports on the Persian Gulf. What are the size and population of 
Persia ? What is the value of its exports ? Its imports ? These consist 
mainly of cotton cloth, sugar, tea and hardware. Why has the United States 
no trade directly with Persia ? How do we obtain Persian goods? 

Afghanistati is a country of high mountains and deep valleys. 
(Review LXXI.) Describe the people. The caravan routes. 
What famous passes does it contain ? What countries do these 
connect? Afghanistan, like Persia, lies between Russian and 
British territory, and these countries are rivals for political and 
commercial control. What animals do the Afghans raise? 
Their agricultural products are fruits, grain, tobacco, and some 
drugs and spices. Trade is mainly with India. The Afghans 
sell their horses, cattle, hides, silk, tobacco, and spices and buy 
dyes, cottons, sugar, and tea. 

Written Work.—On outline map locate the chief cities of Persia and Afghan¬ 
istan and the leading productions of each country. 

84. Asiatic Turkey, Armenia, and Arabia.—Of what does 
Asiatic Turkey consist (LXXI) ? The peninsula lying between the 
Black and Mediterranean Seas long known as “Asia Minor” is now ; 
called “Anatolia." Armenia borders on Georgia; Syria lies along 
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Palestine lies south of 
Syria. Mesopotamia is a name meaning “between the rivers,” 
and is applied to the country lying between the Tigris and Euphrates 
rivers. The western part of Arabia, bordering the Red Sea, forms 
the native kingdom of Hedjaz. Oman, another native kingdom, 
extends along the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. How is the 
rest of Arabia governed (LXXI, 7) ? All of these countries are 
located on an elevated tableland, and except along the coast there 
is too little rain for successful farming. Hence the main industry 
is stock-raising. In ancient times, this part of Asia, through careful 
irrigation, was cultivated like a garden and contained rich and 
powerful cities. Now, owing to wars and bad government, much 
of it is an tmproductive desert. 

What are the productions of Asiatic Turkey? The exports? What do 
you know of the sponge and coral fisheries? Smyrna, in Anatolia, and Bei¬ 
rut, in Syria, are leading ports, but most of the trade goes through Con¬ 
stantinople, which is connected by railroad on the Asiatic side with the chief 
cities. Beirut, however, exports silk, tobacco, and oranges to the countries of 
Europe. Rugs, carpets, raisins, figs, opium, and valonia come from Smyrna. 
Trebizond, on the Black Sea, is the terminus of caravans bringing fruits from 
Mesopotamia and Persia. 

For what products is Arabia famous? It is the native land 
of the horse, the camel, and the goat. Aden is a British colony 
and a free port. Many goods are exchanged here. The United 


States sends cotton cloth to Aden and buys goat and sheep 
skins, Mocha coffee, and ivory. 

Written Work.—i. Make a list of the chief cities of Arabia and Asiatic Turkey 
and state an important fact about each. 2. On outline map of Asia locate these 
cities and write the leading productions of the above countries. 3. On the trade 
map of Asia already begun write our exports to these countries and our imports 
from them. 


Africa. 

85. Physical Features.—(Review Map Studies and LXXIV.) 
What is said of the surface of Africa as a whole? Of the 
coast plain ? The coast line is so regular that there is only one 
first-class natural harbor, that of Lourengo Marquez. Locate the 
deserts and describe the effect of each on climate. Where are 
the chief mountain ranges? How do they affect climate? 
The Atlas range arrests moisture from the Mediterranean Sea 
and makes the coast from Tunis to Morocco fertile. The low 
coast plain is moist, hot, and so unhealthy that much of it is 
uninhabitable for white people. 

What is the cause of the Nile’s overflow? What winds bring 
the rain to Abyssinia and the Lake regions? The Sahara or 
Great Desert extends from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. 
Describe its surface ; inhabitants ; oases. 

This region lies in the path of the southeast trade winds, which have be¬ 
come heated by passing over the Arabian peninsula. They thus become dry¬ 
ing winds, taking up moisture as they proceed. As there are no mountains 
in the Sahara high enough to cool these winds sufficiently to condense their 
moisture this entire region is left barren. The oases are due to the rainfall 
on the southern slopes of the Atlas Mountains which runs down into the 
desert and sinks below the surface. These underground waters reappear 
in lower places as springs, forming the fertile spots so necessary as halting 
places for travelers and caravans. The date-palm is made to flourish in the 
desert by planting it so deep that its roots can reach the underground 
waters. 

The Sudan is a strip of rolling prairie land stretching nearly 
across the continent. Can you account for its rainfall? Describe 
its people and natural wealth. It is more elevated than the 
Sahara and is traversed by numerous ranges of low mountains. 

Central Africa lies between 10° north and 10° south latitude. What do 
you know of its climate and vegetation ? It has the most extensive forests 
in the world, covering an area one-third as large as the United States. 
Cotton, coffee, tropical fruit and grains, palm trees, and rubber vines are 
found everywhere. What of the animals, insects, and peoples ? 

South Africa lies partly in the temperate zone. Its climate is dry and 
healthy and more white people live here than in any other part of the 
continent. The surface is elevated, rising abruptly from the coast. It has 
rich mineral wealth, consisting of coal, iron, diamonds, and gold. The 
climate is suited to agriculture and stock-raising. 

The Rivers of Africa with the exception of the Niger are 
marked by waterfalls and rapids where the central plateau joins 
the coast plain. One of these, Victoria Falls, is the grandest 
cataract in the world. How do these rapids and waterfalls affect 
the country’s development ? Why? 

Written Work.—On outline map of Africa locate the mountains, rivers, deserts, 
and the chief products. 

86. Industries and Trade.—Africa is of all the continents 
the least important as regards production and trade. This is 
due to the low state of civilization of the inhabitants, to their 
frequent wars and lack of settled government, and also to an 





30 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


unfavorable climate and soil. The continent is now entirely 
divided among the nations of Europe, only the barbarous king¬ 
dom of Abyssinia and the little Liberian Republic remaining 
independent. In Egypt, Algeria, and South Africa the most 
progress has been made in reducing the natives to law and order, 
and in securing regular crops and avenues of trade. There is a 
fringe of European settlements along the eastern and western 
coasts where traders exchange cloth, knives, firearms, and rum 
for the oil and nuts of the palm, the gums, coffee, ivory, and 
other natural forms of wealth. 

Experiments in fanning are being made, chiefly by the governments of 
France and Great Britain, to ascertain what crops may be most profitably 
grown, schools are maintained for the natives, roads are being built and 
capital is invested in various ways in attempts to develop profitable industries 
and trade. But so far these experiments have cost far more than has been 
realized from them. At present the chief wealth of Africa is derived from its 
mines, forests, and other sources of natural wealth. Gold and diamonds are 
the most important, but the vast mineral wealth of Africa has scarcely been 
touched. Coal, iron, and petroleum exist there in vast quantities. Why is 
there little use for them ? The African forests cover a million of square miles 
and contain such valuable timber as teak, ebony, mahogany, redwood, and 
other hardwoods. Rubber trees and vines and the palm are found every¬ 
where and are a great source of wealth. Trade is mainly carried by caravans 
of mules and camels and by trains of slaves. Railroads have been most largely 
built in Egypt, Algeria, and South Africa, although there are a number of lines 
running inland from various points on the coast. The completion of the pro¬ 
jected railroad from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo will open up the most pro¬ 
ductive pare of the continent to trade. The foreign trade of Africa is small as 
compared with its size, population, and rich natural resources. 

Written Work.—l. On outline map of Africa draw the chief railroads and tell 
the advantages that will come from the “Cape to Cairo” road. 2. Write a para¬ 
graph describing the means of communication in Africa. 

87. Foreign Control of Africa.—About fifty years ago 
Africa was known as “ the Dark Continent.” What did this 
mean? Now the entire region has been explored. What 
nations control it? Egypt and Northern Africa were among 
the earliest homes of man. What have you learned about these 
tountries? What nations control these parts? For thousands 
of years they furnished grain for the people of Europe and 
Western Asia. 

During the latter part of the 15th century Portuguese sailors 
began to make their way down the Western coast, until Diaz 
reached the Cape in i486 and Da Gama rounded it, completing 
the voyage to India in 1497. Settlements were rapidly made 
along the coast, and trade in ivory, gold, and slaves began, for 
which the natives received cloth, knives, weapons, and, mainly, 
rum. 

The Portuguese had found the Arabs in control of the African and Indian 
trade, and after many years of war drove them out. The Dutch afterwards 
expelled the Portuguese and later were themselves displaced by the English, 
who now hold the best part of the continent. France has entered Africa 
from the north and now owns the most of the Sahara and the Sudan and a 
large part of the Guinea coast. What provinces are held by Portugal? 
Italy? Spain? Which countries are independent? How is Egypt governed? 
What interests have the English there and how do they share in the 
government ? 

The great hindrances to the commercial development of Africa 
have been the lack of settled governments and roads and the 
existence of the slave trade. This last is forbidden by all European 
governments, but is secretly carried on by Arab traders. 

In Tropical Africa where there are no beasts of burden, goods must be 


carried by men. The stronger Negro tribes raid the weaker ones, and carry 
off prisoners to sell to the traders, who use them to carry goods to the coast 
and then sell them again to other traders. This traffic in slaves is now for¬ 
bidden by the governments of civilized nations. The British and French 
have done most to improve the industrial condition of the people. Algeria, 
formerly a land of thieves, has a strong government and property is safe. 
About 2,000 miles of railroads have been built and excellent highways. The 
foreign trade amounts to nearly $150,000,000. What France has done for 
Algeria, Great Britain has done for Egypt and South Africa. These three 
sections are the best developed parts of the continent. In all colonies of 
England, France, and Portugal, successful attempts have been made to 
introduce suitable plants for cultivation. Coffee, cocoa, tobacco, cotton, 
sugar, tea, indigo, and rice are profitably raised in many places. In order 
that these industries may flourish, railroads or other means of transportation 
must be furnished to bring supplies to the farmer and to take away his 
goods. How does the coffee of Central Africa find its way to the seaboard 
(map) ? What lines are found in Nigeria, British East Africa, South Af¬ 
rica? What is their purpose? Find several other lines and tell their use. 
The British have planned a railroad from Cape Town to Cairo. The north end 
now extends to Khartum and the south end has crossed the Zambezi by a 
fine bridge above Victoria Falls. How will this road help South and Central 
Africa ? Elementary and industrial schools have been begun in most col¬ 
onies to teach the natives. How will this be an advantage to the country 
owning the colony ? Will it make government easier ? Will it make the 
land more productive ? So far the countries of Europe have spent far more 
on their colonies than they have received. May this become a profitable in¬ 
vestment? Why? 

Written Work.—Make a list of the colonies belonging to Great Britain, France, 
Portugal, Italy, and Spain, and tell two leading products of each. 

88. Region of the Nile.—^Egypt is made fertile by irrigation 
and by the overflow of the Nile (LXXV). Describe the annual 
rise and fall of the river. The black mud spread over the land 
by its annual overflow has increased to scores of feet in thickness 
in the Delta and has changed the valley to a level plain; such a 
river valley is called a “ flood plain.” Great dams and storage 
reservoirs are built at different places to hold back the water for 
use during the dry season. The fertile land of Egypt is a little 
greater in area than the State of Vermont. Compare its popu¬ 
lation with that of Vermont. The climate of Egypt enables the 
farmer to grow two or three crops each year where the water 
supply is sufficient. Cotton, sugar, and rice are sown in March 
and harvested in October and November. These are the chief 
crops. In November, wheat, beans, and millet are planted and 
harvested in late spring. On the irrigated fields crops of vege¬ 
tables are raised between the summer and winter crops. 
Tobacco is grown, but Turkish tobacco is imported for making 
the famous Egyptian cigarettes. This is the only manufacturing 
industry of importance and is almost entirely carried on at 
Cairo. 

Sheep, goats, and camels are raised, but Egypt is a large importer of 
animal products. Rice is also imported, but wheat, corn and beans are sold 
to the countries of Europe. Cotton is the largest crop raised for export. 
How docs it compare with that of the United States (Fig. 18) ? Egyptiar, 
cotton is a long staple and the most of it is sold to Great Britain and the 
United States. The former country has half of Egypt’s trade. With Ger¬ 
many and France she supplies Egypt with cloth, iron and steel, and various 
manufactures. Besides cotton, we buy from Egypt gum arabic and hides 
and sell to her flour, meat, lumber, iron and steel. What do you know of 
the caravan trade of Egypt (LXXV, 4)? Where are the most railroads? 
The line to Khartum is to be extended to connect with the railroad from Cape 
Town. How far is this last road built ? (See map.) How will its comple¬ 
tion help trade in Egypt ? What is the advantage of the line to Suakin ? 
Describe the Suez Canal. Four thousand ships pass through this canal each 
year, more than half of which are British. What possessions of Great Britain 




AFRICA. 


are reached by way of the Suez Canal? It has made Port Said the second 
seaport of Egypt. Which one ranks first ? 

The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is a great undeveloped region with a 
mixed population * about one-fourth that of Egypt. It sells to 
Egypt rubber, gums, ivory, gold, ostrich feathers, hides and skins, 
and buys manufactured goods that are brought from the countries 
of Europe. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Africa write the chief productions of 
Egypt. Locate the important railroads and cities. 2. On a similar map write 
our exports to Egypt and our imports from that country. 3. Write a paragraph 
on the Suez Canal. 

89. The Barbary States.—(Review LXXVI.) What part of 
Africa do these states occupy ? Which of them are fertile ? How 
does the desert affect the climate of Libia ? What is the source 
of its rainfall ? 

Tripoli and Bengazi are the termini of caravan routes from the 
Sudan. What products do they bring (LXXVI, i) ? 

Algeria and Tunis are the most prosperous of the Barbary 

States. To what nation do they belong ? How do they 
compare with France in area and population ? Agriculture and 
herding are the chief occupations. There are large forests of 
cork-oak. Minerals of many kinds are found. Iron and zinc 
are the chief metals mined. The yield of phosphate rock is 
second only to that of the United States. What products does 
Algeria supply to Europe (LXXVI, 3) ? Esparto grass grows 
in unlimited supply in the southern plateaus. It is sent to 
England and France for use in making paper, and with zinc 

ore and cork forms the most valuable export. Iron, hides, 

•phosphate, flax, tobacco, grains, wine, and sheep are the other 
leading exports. Algeria and Tunis depend upon France for 

seven-eighths of their imports; these consist of cloth, coal, coffee, 
tea, and various manufactures. From other countries they 
import cattle, lumber, tobacco, and leather. 

The United States has little share in their trade. Our whole trade with 
French Africa amounts to less than $1,000,000. From Algeria we buy 
cork, fiber, and goat-skins and sell to her kerosene, tobacco, and farm tools. 
Market gardening is becoming the greatest industry of Algeria. Vegetables 
of every sort are raised. There are 3,000,000 of date palms on the Sahara 
oases and 10,000,000 olive trees on the mountain slopes, while the number 
of orange, lemon, and other tropical fruit trees is increasing. Transportation 
is well provided for by good wagon roads and railroads to the seaports 
connecting with swift steamships for the ports of Europe. 

Morocco was long a badly governed, barbarous country, and of 
little importance to commerce. It is now under the protection of 
France and Spain, and these conditions are improving. Hides are 
the chief export. What are the others (LXXVI, 2) ? Its imports 
are cloth, sugar, wine, tea, and flour. Trade is chiefly with France. 
Transportation is carried on by caravan. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Africa write the chief products of the 
Barbary States. 2. Locate the leading towns and draw the chief caravan routes. 
3. Write a paragraph on Algeria. 

90. The Sahara, Sudan, and Central Africa.—What nation 
controls the Sahara f What do you know of its size, surface, 
people, and trade (LXXVH, 1-6) ? What is the chief occupation ? 
How are the oases formed ? How is salt obtained ? Many of the 
oases yield an abundance of dates and grain. By removing the 
surface soil to a depth of ten feet the date palm is made to flour¬ 
ish, as its roots can reach the underground waters. Trace the 
routes of trade. What goods are exchanged? What is the 


3r 


Sudan f What are its products ? Describe the people (LXXVII, 
6-10). What are the occupations? Productions? Exports? 
Imports (LXXVII, 4) ? Gums and rubber are gathered in the 
forests. Rice, millet, and ground-nuts are cultivated. The 
ground-nut is really the pod of a plant which ripens under¬ 
ground. It yields a valuable oil and is an important export from 
the Sudan and West Africa. 

Where is the Belgian Kongo ? What can you say of its com¬ 
merce ? Of its productions and exports (LXXVH, 10-12)? 
Describe the oil-palm. Coffee, cotton, manioc, cacao, and rice 
grow where introduced. The Belgian Kongo is now the chief 
source of ivory, the herds of elephants in other sections having 
been nearly destroyed. Describe the surface of Abyssinia 
(LXXV, 10). The raising of cattle, sheep, and goats is the 
main industry. Coffee is the largest agricultural product; the 
plant grows wild, and Abyssinia is said to be its earliest home. 
Cotton, sugar, dates, and grapes flourish but are little cultivated. 
What minerals are found ? Only gold is mined. Transportation 
is by means of animals. Harar is the chief trade center. A 
railroad connects this town with Jibuti. Coffee, gold, gums, and 
wax are exported. Cotton and woolen goods, cutlery, mirrors,, 
and matches are the largest imports. American cottons to the 
value of $1,000,000 are imported annually. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Africa write the chief products of 
Central Africa, the Sahara, and the Sudan and locate the chief towns. 2. Write 
a paragraph describing the trade of these regions. 

91. The Eastern Coast.—(Review LXXX.) Where is Mo¬ 
zambique ? What are its leading products and exports ? Rubber,, 
ivory, gold, and other metals are now exported. This colony 
is controlled by three trading companies, and trade is almost 
entirely with Portugal. The colony buys cotton cloth, metal 
goods, spirits, beer, and wine. What railroads has the colony ? 
They connect with Pretoria, Bulawayo, and Salisbury. Where 
is Tanganyika Territory ? It is a rich agricultural region. Coco¬ 
nuts, coffee, tobacco, rubber, cacao, sugar, tea, bananas, and corn 
are cultivated. Many cattle, sheep, and goats are raised by the 
natives. Various minerals are found, among which are coal, 
iron, copper, lead, agates, topaz, and tourmalin. Several long 
lines of railroad have been built. The exports are rubber, gutta 
percha, copra, ivory, and coffee; the imports are cotton cloth,, 
rice, hardware, and iron. Trade is chiefly with Kenya, Zanzibar, 
and India. 

The Zanzibar Protectorate consists of the islands of Zanzibar 
and Pemba. The island of Pemba produces nearly all the world’s 
supply of cloves. Other exports are ivory and copra. For what 
is Eritrea noted ? Considerable gold is found. What is obtained 
from Somaliland (LXXX, 6) ? Cotton, rice, and fruits are imported., 

Madagascar is the third largest island in the world. To what nation does 
it belong? It is very rich in metals, nearly all kinds being found. Gold is 
chiefly mined. Stock-raising and agriculture are the main occupations. 
About 3,000,000 cattle are kept. Rice, manioc, sugar, coffee, cotton, cacao, 
vanilla, and tobacco are grown. The mulberry has been introduced. Valu¬ 
able forest products used in tanning, dyeing, and medicine are found. Silk 
and cotton are manufactured. Rubber is the leading export. Rafia, a fiber 
derived from a species of palm, is obtained there. Wax and ebony are also 
exported. Cotton cloth is the chief import. Rice, wine, metal goods, and 
flour are next in value among the imports. What do you know of Mauritius 
and Reunion Islands ? How does Mauritius rank in sugar (Fig. 26) ? The 
United States sells flour, cotton, tobacco, meats, iron and steel to the 




32 


LESSONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 


■colonies of the eastern coast but buys little of them except hides and skins, 
the raw products which they furnish going to the countries of Europe. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Africa write the chief products of the 
countries named in this lesson and locate the chief towns. 2. Make a list of these 
countries with the exports and imports of each. 

92. The Western Coast.—(Review LXXVIII.) What are the 
resources of the western coast ? What are the British posses¬ 
sions ? The French ? The Portuguese ? The Spanish ? What 
islands lie off the coast ? 

All the western colonies export palm oil and nuts, ground-nuts, kola nuts 
(used in medicine), copal, rubber, coffee, and ivory, and import cotton cloth, 
cutlery, hardware, firearms, and liquors. What is obtained from the Portu¬ 
guese Islands ? In all of these colonies industries and transportation are 
undeveloped. Experimental farming is carried on and roads are being built. 
Schools are conducted for the natives, in many of which instruction is given 
in the trades and agriculture. 

Written Work. — i. On outline map of Africa color the colonies of the western 
coast belonging to the several nations and write their chief products. 2. Locate the 
capital of each. 

93. South Africa.—This region lies between latitude 15° and 
35° .south. This is about as far from the equator as the West 
Indies; yet South Africa, owing to its elevation of 400 feet 
above sea level, has a temperate climate. What part of it 
belongs to Great Britain ? To Portugal ? The climate of the 
western half is dry, as the rain brought by the trade winds is 
cut off by the mountains. What British colonies are found in 
South Africa ? What are the productions of the Cape of Good 
Hope.^ Of Basutoland.'’ Of Natal.? Of Rhodesia.? Of the 
Orange Free State? Of the Transvaal? How is transportation 
provided for.? What parts are reached by the railroads.? What 
interior cities.? 

The export of gold exceeds that of all other products combined. How 
■does South Africa rank in gold (Fig. 15)? Diamonds are the second largest 
•exfwrt. Ostrich feathers, the hair of the Angora goat (mohair), copper ore, 
hides, and wine are also exjJorted. About all these exports go to Great Britain. 
But considerable amounts of the wool, mohair, diamonds, feathers, besides 
•spices and oil from the eastern coast, come to the United States in British 
ships. We sell to the South African colonies through the same channel bread- 
stuffs, machinery, provisions, rum,- lumber, tobacco, kerosene, cotton cloth, 
leather goods, and fish. Our exports are more than thirty times as great as 
•our imports. There is little manufacturing in South Africa because of the 
small number of white people living there. 


Written Work.—i. On outline map of Africa write the chief productions of the 
•colonies of South Africa and locate the leading towns. Draw the chief railroads. 
•2. On a trade map write our imports from South Africa and our exports to that 
region. 


Australasia and Oceania 

94. Australia.—(Review LXXXI, 1-12.) Compare with the 
United States in location, size and population. What do you know 
of the rivers? The lakes? The coast line is very regular. The 
warm, dry climate is very favorable to the sheep industry, in 
which Australia outranks all other countries. The basin shape 
of the continent allows the rainfall of the bordering mountains 
to run in underground channels to the interior. By boring 
Artesian wells these veins are tapped and a supply of fresh 
water is obtained for the sheep and cattle. How does Australia 
rank in sheep (Fig, 37)? In wool (Fig. 38)? Farming is carried 


0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 

I I I I 1 , 1.1 I I I I I I I I ), I I I 1 ,1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

I I 1 I I t M ' f 



Fig. 38. 


on wherever there is sufficient rain. Cotton, corn, sugar, wheat, 
and grapes are the leading agricultural products. Fresh grapes 
are sent to England on steamers having cold-storage rooms and 
reach that country in good condition. What minerals are found 
in Australia? How does it rank in gold (Fig. 15)? The average 
yield of gold is from 150,000,000 to #70,000,000, and over 
$2,000,000,000 have been taken from the mines since 1851. 
Coal, copper, lead, silver, and tin are mined to the annual value 
of $62,000,000. Butter-making and the preserving of beef and 
mutton by freezing and salting are the next largest industries. 
The manufactures of Australia are increasing, but do not supply 
the needs of the country either in quantity or quality. Farm ' 
machinery, wagons, leather, cloth, ships, flour, beer, and sugar 
are the chief articles manufactured. The gold, wool, copper, and 
other minerals, and much of the meat, butter, and fruit which 
^ustralia produces are exported; and this gives her a larger ex¬ 
port trade in proportion to population than any other country in 
the world except New Zealand. 

Judging from the number of railroads, which part of Australia is best 
developed ? About one-third the 23,000 miles of railways are in Victoria and New 
South Wales. Melbourne and Sydney are the chief ports and are connected 
by steamship lines with the great commercial countries. 

Two-thirds of the trade is with Great Britain, which takes the wool, foods, 
and metals, and sells in return textiles, iron work, machinery, ships, 
chemicals, and various manufactures. Our import of Australian wool is 
very large, but most of it comes to us by way of Great Britain. Our other 
imports are hides, hemp, and rabbit-skins, which we use in making hats. We 
sell to Australia more than twice as much as we buy of her. Our exports 
include a great variety of manufactured goods among which are flour, oil, 
steel, machinery, tobacco, lumber, paper, explosives, glass, soap, etc. What 
is the total export trade of Australia worth ? The import trade ? What is 
our share of it (Table VI) ? 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Australia locate the chief products and 
cities. 2. On a similar map write our exports to Australia and our imports from 
that country. 

95. New Zealand. —(Review LXXXI, 12.) What is the area 
of New Zealand? How many people are there to the square 
mile (Table VI)? Describe the soil; climate. What are the 
occupations? Exports? What peculiar products have the 
islands? New Zealand is one of the most prosperous of British 




























AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA. 


33 


colonies. What is the value of her foreign trade and what is the 
trade balance in favor of New Zealand (Table VI)? 

Sheep raising is the greatest industry, wool and frozen mutton 
forming over half the exports. Cattle are kept largely for dairy¬ 
ing, the value of the butter and cheese e.xport approaching 
$36,000,000. Gold, silver, and coal are the chief minerals. 
Apples, grapes, and other fruits are extensively grown. New 
Zealand has 20,000 .square miles of forests. One of the famous 
trees is the kauri pine which yields the kauri (cowrie) gum of 
commerce. By far the larger part of the gum is found buried in 
the ground in masses often weighing 100 pounds (LXXXI, 13). 
It is our chief import from New Zealand. 

Manufactures are increasing rapidly in New Zealand and already supply 
most home needs. 

They include iron and brass, building materials, furniture, cotton and 
woolen goods, boots and shoes, clothing and lumber. Textiles, clothing, 
steel, sugar, tea, tobacco, spirits, wine, and many small articles of manufac¬ 
ture are imported. Many of these go from the United .States in British 
steamers by way of British ports. What is the value of New Zealand’s 
exports? Imports? What is our share of each (Table VI)? What is the 
value of her exports per person ? 

Written Work.—i. Write a paragraph on the industries of New Zealand. 

2. On outline map write the chief products and locate the leading cities and railroads. 

3. On map of Oceania write our exports to and our imports from New Zealand. 

96. The Dutch East Indies.—(Review Oceania, LXXXII.) 
Of what does Oceania consist ? What nations control parts of 
Oceania? Of what does Malaysia consist} Melanesia? Poly¬ 
nesia ? What races inhabit each of these sections ? What are 
the productions of each of these groups? The Dutch Indies 
consist mainly of Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, parts of 
Borneo, and numerous small island.s. How do they compare 
with Holland in size and population? Java and Madura are the 
most thickly settled and productive parts of the group. Rfce, 
coffee, cotton, cocoa, corn, sugar, tobacco, cinchona bark, tea, 
and indigo are all raised in large quantities. In coffee Java 
ranks next to Brazil in the amount exported. Tobacco is the 
chief product and export of Sumatra. The Moluccas supply 
nearly all the nutmegs of commerce, besides pepper and other 
spices. What is obtained from Banka and Billiton? From 
Borneo ? Among the products of Borneo are edible birds’ nests, 
much prized by the Chinese for making delicacies, dammar, a resin 
used in making varnish, and beeswax obtained from the forests. 
Coal and petroleum are found in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, 
but in small amounts. 

There is regular steamship service with the countries of Europe and 
Asia. A large part of the land in the Dutch colonies is farmed under the 
direction of the government and the products are sold at auction in Amster¬ 
dam to Dutch merchants, who are the “middlemen” for the distribution of 
colonial products. So it happens that we buy Java coffee. Sumatra tobacco, 
and Banka tin in Holland. We also buy there the sugar, gums, and spices 
grown in the Dutch colonies. Our sales to Holland for export to the Colonies 
are mainly kerosene and machinery. 

Written Work.—i. On outline map of Oceania color the Dutch possessions 
orange, naming each island or group and write their chief products. 2. On similar 
map locate the principal cities and write our exports to these islands and the goods 
which we buy of them. 

qy. Possessions of the United States. —Beside.s Australasia 
and the Dutch East Indie.s, there are over 600 island groups scat¬ 
tered over the vast Pacific Ocean. The most important of these 
are the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands, belonging to the United 
States. How did we obtain possession of each of these groups? 


The Hawaiian Islands (XLIH a, 9-14) are, next to Cuba, our 
chief source of sugar. Describe the origin, climate, and prod¬ 
ucts of these islands. The rich volcanic soil and mild climate 
make a great variety of products possible for Hawaii, although 
sugar receives almost the entire attention of farmers. Rice, coffee, 
tobacco, fruits, and vegetables are grown for home use. Our chief 
exports to Hawaii are breadstuffs, iron and steel goods, cottons, 
mineral oils, and provisions. What is the location of the islands 
with relation to Asia and the United States? What advantage 
is this to our country? We buy of Hawaii twice as much as we 
sell to her. Does this mean a loss to us? 

The Philippines a, 15-22) are the chief foreign posses¬ 

sions of the United States. What is their number? Area? 
Climate? Population? What is the chief cultivated plant? 
What are its uses? Does the United States raise fiber plants? 
For what do we use Manila hemp? What other products come 
from the Philippines? 

These islands are undeveloped. They contain rich mineral 
wealth of gold, silver, copper, iron and coal. The forests con¬ 
tain valuable and useful timber, with a great variety of gums, 
rubber, gutta-percha, oils, and dyewoods. Sugar was formerly 
the most valuable product and may again become so. There are 
few manufactures in the Philippines and few staple foods are 
produced. Our exports are, therefore, largely cloths, foodstuffs, 
beer and liquors, petroleum, iron and steel goods, watches, 
bicycles, and a long list of small manufactured wares. 

Tutnila and Guam are valuable as coaling stations. Guam and 
Midivay Island are also used as landings for our trans-Pacific cable. 

Written Work—i. On outline map of Oceania color the United States possessions 
blue, with the name of each and its chief products. 2. On the trade map write our 
exports to each island group and what we receive from it. 

98. Foreign Possessions in Oceania. — Great Britain, 
France, and Japan control nearly all the 600 or more smaller 
groups of Pacific Islands. The eastern half of New Guinea, 
North Borneo with the provinces of Brunei and Sarawak, and 
the Fiji group are the most important British possessions. 
Only the last are well developed. The products comprise tropi¬ 
cal fruits, valuable timber, gums, spices, and minerals. Coffee, 
tea, sugar, rice, tobacco, and corn are cultivated. Pearls, tor¬ 
toise-shell, the down of the cotton tree, edible birds’ nests, and 
sea-cucumbers, a kind of fish much prized for food in Eastern 
countries, are also found. 

Of less importance are the Pitcairn, Gilbert, Phoenix, Lagoon and Solomon 
groups. Copra and other fruits, coffee, cocoa, arrowroot, and guano are 
some of the products. To all of these islands Great Britain sells meats, 
breadstuffs, cloth, hardware, kerosene and farming tools. Many of these 
goods come from the United States. 

The chief French possessions are New Caledonia, New Hebrides, and 
Tahiti. The agricultural products are the same as those of the British groups. 
Copper, coal, and nickel are mined on New Caledonia and the rubber and 
mulberry trees have been introduced. Tahiti exports copra, vanilla, and 
mother-of-pearl. ^ 

Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land in New Guinea, and the Bisriiarck Archipelago belong 
to Australia. The Samoa Islands arc divided between New Zealand and the 
United .States. The Caroline, Marshall, and Ladrone or Mariana Islands, 
except the United States island of Guam, belong to Japan. Nearly all arc rich 
in the natural wealth of the tropics. The domestic animals have been introduced 
in New Guinea, and gold and valuable woods are exported. 

Written Work.—Color the British possessions in Oceania red, the Japanese 
yellow, and the French green, and write the leading production of each. 









INDEX TO LESSONS IN COxMMERCTAL GEOGRAPHY 


A 

Abyssinia, 90. 

Aden, 84. 

Adrianople, 58. 
Afghanistan, 83. 

Africa, 85-87. 

Agricultural implements, 

11 . 

Alameda, 39. 

Albuquerque, 39. 

Algeria, 89. 

Allegheny, 39. 

Altai Mts., 75. 

Aluminium, 22. 

Anaconda, 39. 

.Anatolia, 84. 

.Andes (Brazilian), 65. 
Anilene, 19. 

.Arabia, 83. 

Arabs, 87. 

Argentina, 73. 

.Argol, 56. 

.Armenia, 84. 

Artesian wells, 94. 

.Asia, 75-76. 

Asphalt, 66. 

Astoria, 39. 

.Atlas Nits., 85. 

.Augusta, 37. 

Australia, 94. 

Austria, 59. 

B 

Bahia, 64. 

Baikal Lake, 82. 

Balance of trade. 34. 
Balkan States, 58, 

Balsam of Peru, 42. 
Baltimore, 39. 

Banana, 42. 

Banca, 96. 

Bangor, 35. 

Barbary States, 89. 

Barca, 89. 

Barley, 9, 60. 

Barranquilla, 67. 

Basiito Land, 93. 

Beef, 16. 

Beet sugar, 53. 

Beirut, 84. 

Belfast, 49. 

Belgian Kongo, 90. 
Belgium, 51. 

Bengazi, 89. 

Bessemer process, 21. 
Bilbao, 56. 

Billiton, 96. 

Birds’ nests, 96. 
Birmingham, Ala., 37. 
England, 49. 

Bismarck Archipelago, 98. 
Bogota, 26. 

Bokhara, 82. 

Bolivia, 71. 

Borneo, 98. 

Boston, 35, 39. 

Bradford, 49. 

Ilrass, 19. 

Brazil, 64. 
ilritish India, 79. 

Bronze, 20. 

Bruges, 51. 
lirunei, 98. 

Brus.sels, 51. 
l^uenos Aires, 73. 

Bulgaria, 58. 

Butte, 39. 

Butter, 52. 

C 

Cabinet woods, 11, 73, 86. 
Cacao. 69. 


Calcutta. 79. 

Campos, 64. 

Canada, 40. 

Canton, 77. 

(iape of Good Hope, 93. 
Capital, 6. 

Caravans, 82, 89. 

Cardiff, 49. 

Carmen, 41. 

Carpets, 58, 83. 

Caroline Is., 98. 

Cattle, 15, 73. 

Cauca River, 67. 

Caucasus Mts., 75. 

Celebes, 96. 

Cement, 22. 

Central America, 42. 
Ceylon, 69, 79. 

Charlotte, 37. 

Cheese, 16, 40. 

Chemicals, 29. 

(i^heyenne, 39. 

Chicago, 38, 39. 

China, 77. 

Chocolate, 69. 

Chrome process, 28. 
Cigarettes, 88. 

Cinchona, 70. 

Cincinnati, 20, 38, 39. 
Cities, location of, 35. 
Clav. 22. 

Cleveland, 38, 39. 
Clothing, 26. 

Clyde River, 49. 

Coal, 18. 50. 54. 

Cocaine, 70. 

Cocoa shells, 69. 

Coffee, 41. 42, 65, 84. 
Coke, 18. 

Colombia, 67. 

(Commerce, 2; relation of 
government to, 30; 
domestic, 31; foreign, 
34. 

Constantinople, 58. 

Consul, duties of, 30. 
Copaiba balsam, 66. 
Copenhagen, 52. 

Copper, 19. 

Copra, 98. 

Coral, 57, 84. 

Cork, 89. 

Corn, 8, 73. 

Cotton, 79; 82,88; Peru¬ 
vian; 10. tree, 98. 
Council Bluffs, 39. 
Crackers, 27. 

Cuba, 43. 

Cuzco, 70. 

Czechoslovakia, 59. 

D 

Dallas. 37. 

Da Gama, 87. 

Dammar, 96. 

Dekkan, 79. 

Denmark, 52. 

Des Moines, 38. 

Detroit, 38, 39. 

Diamonds, 64, 86. 

Diaz, 87. 

Dover, 49. 

Drugs, 19. 

Dutch East Indies, 96. 

E 

East Liverpool, 20. 
Ecuador, 68. 

Education in Africa, 87, 
92. 

Eggs. 89. 

Eg>'pt, 88. 

Egyptian Sudan, 88. 


El Paso, 37. 
Ensilage, 8. 
Eritrea, 91. 
Esthonia, 60. 
Europe, 45-47. 
Evansville, 38. 


F 

Factories, 37. 

Falkland Ls., 73. 

Fall Line, 36. 

Fargo, 38. 

Fiji Is., 98. 

Filature, silk, 77. 
Flax-seed, 38. 

Flood plain, 88. 

Flour, 27. 

Forests, 11; forest prod¬ 
ucts, 12. 

Formosa, 80. 

Fort Worth, 37. 

France, 50. 

Fray Bentos, 74. 

Fruits, 14, 95. 

Furs, 28. 40, 82. 


G 

Galveston, 37. 

Gambier, 81. 

Gamboge, 81. 

Gasolene, 19. 

Geneva, 54. 

Germany, 53. 

(Ghent, 51. 

(Glasgow, 49. 

Glass, 19, 57; plate, 29. 
(Gloucester, 35. 

Glucose, 8. 

Gold. 21, 64, 82, 86, 04. 
Golden Horn, 58. 
Goodyear, Charles, 65. 
Grand Forks, 38. 

Grand Rapids, 38. 
eSraphite, 22. 

Great Britain, 48; cities 
of. 49. 

Greece, 58. 

Ground nut, 90. 

Guam, 97. 

Guano, 70. 

(Guiana, 65. 

Gums, 88, 90; kauri, 95. 
Gunny cloth, 79. 

(Gutta percha, 12. 


H 

Hankau, 76. 

Harar, 90. 

Hawaiian Is., 97. 
Hedjaz, 84. 

Hemp, 41, 97. 

Hogs, 15. 

Holland, 52. 

Hong Kong, 34, 77. 
Houston, 37. 

Hull, 49. 

Hungary, 59. 
Hydraulic mining, 21. 


I 

Immigration, 5. 
Indianapolis, 38, 39. 
Indigo, 79. 

Indo-China, 81. 

Irkutsk. 82. 

Iron, 18, 55; ores of, 24. 
Irrigation, 73, 83, 84, 88. 
Irtish, R., 82. 


Italy, 57. 

Ivory, 82, 84, 88, 90. 


J 

Jacquard loom, 50. 
Japan, 80. 

Java, 69, 96. 

Jerked beef, 74. 
Jersey City, 39. 
Jibuti, 90. 
Jugoslavia, 58. 
Jute, 79. 


K 

Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, 
98. 

Kansas City, 38, 39. 
Kenya, 91. 

Kerosene, 19. 

Key West, 37. 

Khartum, 88. 

Khiva, 82. 

Kiakhta, 82. 

Kokan, 82. 

Korea, 80. 

Kurdistan, 84. 


L 

Lacquer, 80. 

Lagoon Is., 98. 

Latin Race, 46. 

Latvia, 60. 

Lead, 22. 

Leather, 28, 38. 

Leghorn, 58. 

Levant, 58. 

Liege, 51. 

Lima, 70. 

Limoges, 50. 

Lithuania, 60. 

Liverpool, 49. 

Lobos, 70. 

Lodz, 82. 

Lofoden Is., 55. 

Lorenzo Marquez, 85. 

Los Angeles, 39. 

Louisville, 38, 39. 

Lumber, 11. 

Lys, River, 51. 

M 

Machinery, 48. 
Madagascar, 91. 

Madura Id., 96. 
Magdalena River, 67. 
Mahogany, 42. 
Maimatchin, 82. 

Malay States, 81. 

Malt, 9. 

Manchester, 49. 
Manganese, 22. 

Manioc, 74. 

Manufactures, 23, 25; 

leading cities of United 
States, 39. 

Maranhao, 04. 

Marshall Is., 98. 

Matches, 55. 

Mat6. 74. 

Mauritius, 91. 

Meat: frozen, 73, 04; 

packing, 10. 

Mechlin, 51. 

Nlelbourne, 94. 

Menam River, 84. 
Mercury, 21, 22. 
Mesopotamia, 84. 

Nlexico, 41. 

Milan, 57. 


Milk, 16. 

Milwaukee, 38, 39. 
NIining, 41. 
Minneapolis, 38, 39. 
Mobile, 37. 

Mocha, 65. 

Molucca Is., 96. 
Monazite, 64. 
Money, 21. 
Mongolia, 77. 
NIonsoons, 75. 
Morocco, 89. 
Moscow, 82. 
Muslins, 54. 
Mutton, 15. 


N 

Naphtha, 19. 

Natal, 93. 

Natural gas, 19. 

New Caledonia, 98. 
Newcastle, 49. 

New England cities, 35. 
New Guinea, 98. 

New Hebrides, 98. 

New Orleans, 37, 39. 
Newspaper, 12. 

New York City, 36, 39. 
New Zealand, 95. 
Nickel, 21. 

Nictheroy, 64. 
Nishapur, 83. 

Norfolk, \’a., 36. 

North America, 3. 
North Borneo, 98. 
Norway, 55. 
Nottingham, 49. 


O 

Oases, 85, 89. 
( 4 at 8 , 9. 

Oaxaca, 41. 

Ob River, 82. 
Oceania, 96. 

(Gleo, 16. 

Olives, 89. 
Omaha, 39. 
Oman, 84. 
Opium, 79, 83. 
Oranges, 74. 
()stend, 51. 
Ostriches, 88, 93. 


P 

Paisley, 49. 

Palestine, 84. 

Palm, date, 85, 89; oil, 00. 
Panama hats, 69 
Paraguay, 74. 

Paterson, 39. 

Pearls, 83. 

Peling Mt., 75. 
I^ernamhuoo, 64. 

Persia, 83. 

Peru, 70. 

Petrograd, 76. 

Petroleum, 19, 64, 82. 
Phoenix, 98. 

Philadelphia, 36, 39. 
Philippine Is., 97. 
Phosphate, 89. 

Pitcairn Id., 98. 
Pittsburgh, 36, 39, 

Placer Mining, 21. 
Platinum, 22. 

Poland, 60. 

Portland, Oregon, 39. 
Porto .Alegre, 64. 

Porto Rico, 43. 

Portugal, 56. 


Portuguese, 87; East 
Africa, 91. 

Pottery, 49. 

Pretoria, 91. 

Production, 1. 

Providence, 35, 39. 

Pueblo, 39. 

Pyrites, 56. 

Q 

Queensland, 49. 

R 

Railroads. 31, 86, 87, 88. 
Raleigh, 37. 

Reunion Id., 91. 

Rhodesia, 93. 

Rice, 9, 77. 

Richmond, 36. 

Rio, 63. 

Rio Grande do Sul, 64. 
Roads, 31. 

Rochester, 36, 39. 

Roses, 83. 

Rosin, 12. 

Roumania, 59. 

Rubber, 65, 86. 

Rugs, 58. 

Russia, 60. 

Russian Asia, 82. 

Rye, 9, 53. 

S 

Sacramento, 39. 

Sahara, 85, 90. 

St. Etienne, 50. 

St. Gall. 54. 

St. Louis, 38, 39. 

Salwen River, 81. 

Salonica, 58. 

Salt. 22. 

Samarkand, 82. 

Samoa, 97. 

San Antonio, 37. 

San Francisco, 39. 
Sarawak, 98. 

Sea cucumber, 98. 

Seattle, 39. 

Sdvres, 50. 

Shanghai, 77. 

Sheep, 73. 94. 

Shellac, 12. 81. 

Ships, 52. 

Shiraz, 83. 

Shreveport, 37. 

Silk, 50. 77. 78, 83; cul¬ 
ture of, 78. 

Silver, 21, 41. 

Singapore, 34, 81. 

Sin Kiang, 77. 

Slate, 22. 

Slavery, 86, 87. 

Slavonic Race, 46. 
Smyrna, 84. 

Solomon Is., 98. 
Somaliland, 91. 

Sorghum, 44. 

South America, 61-63. 
Southampton, 49. 
Southern States, 37. 

South Omaha, 38. 

Sponge, 84. 

Spain, 56. 

Spices, 79, 93. 

Steamship lines, 32, 33. 
Steamers, “ tramp,” 33. 
Steel, 24 ; Bessemer pro¬ 
cess in, 24. 

Steppes, 75. 

Stock raising, 15. 

Sudan, 85, 90. 


Suez Canal, 88. 

Sugar, 44 ; refining of, 66. 
Sulphur, 57. 

Sumatra, 96. 

Sweden, 55. 

Switzerland, 54. 

Sydney, 94. ' 

S3Tia, 

T 

Tabriz, 83. 

Tacoma, 39. 

Tahiti, 98. 

Tampico, 41. 

Tanganyika Terr., 91. 
Tanning, 28. 

Tariff, 34,60; in Russia, 82. 
Tea, 78. 

Teakwood, 81. 

Teheran, 83. 

Teutonic Race, 46. 

Textile fiber, 10. 

Textiles, 25. 

Tibet, 77. 

Tin, 81, 96. 

Tobacco, 13, 88, 96. 
Tomsk, 82. 

Tortoise shell, 98. 
Trans-Caucasia, 82. 
Transportation, 2, 31, 87. 
Transvaal, 93. 

Trebizond, 84. 

Tripoli, 89. 

Tunis, 89. 

Turkey, 58; Asiatic, 84. 
Turquoise, 83. 

Tussac grass, 73. 

U 

United Kingdom, 48-49. 
United States, 4-6; (rela¬ 
tions with Europe), 47. 
Ural Mts., 75. 

Uruguay, 74. 

V 

Valparaiso, 63. 

Vanilla, 98. 

Vaseline, 19. 

V^egetables, 14. 

Venice, 57. 

Venezuela, 66. 

Vera Cruz, 41. 

Victoria Falls, 86. 
Vladivostok, 82. 
Vulcanizing, 65. 

W 

Wake Id., 97. 

Warsaw, 82. 

Watches, 54. 

West Indies, 43. 

Wheat, 7, 73. 

Wilmington, 37. 

Wine, 50, 56, 89. 

Wood: soft, hard, 11; 

cabinet, 11, 73, 86. 
Worcester, 35, 39; Eng¬ 
land, 49. 

Y 

Yemen, 65. 

Yucatan, 41. 

Z 

Zanzibar, 91. 

Zinc, 22. 

Zurich, 54. 


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